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THE BLACK-BOARD. 



EXERCISES AND ILLUSTRATIONS 



ON 



THE BLACK-BOARD; 



FURNISHING 



AN EASY AND EXPEDITIOUS METHOD 



GIVING INSTRUCTION. 



DESIGNED FOR TltE USE OF COMMON SCHOOLS. 



r 



BY JOHN QOLDSBURY, 

Author of " The Common School Grammar" and " Sequel,"— of "New Theories of 

Grammar," — and one of the Authors of " The American Common-School 

Eeoder and Speaker," and of the "Introduction" to the same. 



KEENE, N. H. 
PUBLISHED BY GEORGE TILDEN. 

1847. 



PREFACE 



The A-arious uses of tlie black-board are, perhaps, too well understood 
and appreciated in this vicinity, to need any illustration or recommenda- 
tion Avhatever. In many of our scbool-houses, Ave have black-boards of 
lample dimensions, and generally teachers who are competent to explain 
their uses. But this is not the case eyerywhere, nor generally throughout 
"New England. Ea'^cu in Massachusetts, there are many school-houses 
destitute of this necessary appendage ; and there are others, in which, 
though there may be a black-board, yet it is so extremely small, as to be 
of no use ; and there are still others, in which there is a black-board, but 
no teacher competent to explain its uses. 

Some think, that its use is restricted almost entirely to vmtJiematical sub' 
jects. But this is a great mistake, as will appear from a perusal of the 
following pages. For the purposes of common school instruction, the 
black-board is worth more than all the diagrams and other apparatus that 
ever were invented ; for it can be made to supply the place of these. A 
piece of chalk or a crayon, in the magic hand of a skilful teacher, can in- 
stantly be made to represent any diagram which is needed for the purposes 
of illustration ; and, in an instant, the drawing can be made to disappear, 
and another to take its place. And these illustrations are visible to all 
the pupils at once. As illn strati ve of this point, take the following account, 
given by the Hon. Horace Mann, of the manner in which geography is 
taught in the Prussian schools : — 

'• The teacher," says he, " stood by the black-board with the chalk in his 
hand. After casting his eye over the class, to see that all were ready, he 
struck at the middle of the board. With a rapidity of hand which my 
eye could hardly follow, he made a series of those short, divergent lines, 
or shadings, employed by map-engravers to represent a chain of moun- 
tains. He had scarcely turned an angle, or shot off a spur, when the 
scholars began to cry out — Carpathian mountains, Hungary; Black 
Forest mountains, Wirtemberg ; Giant's mountains (Riesen-Gebirge), 
Silesia; Metallic mountains (Erz-GebirgeJ ; Pine mountains (Fichtel- 
Gebirge) ; Central mountains, (Mittel-Gebirge), Bohemia, &o., &c." 
1* 



6 ' l^RfiFACfi. 

" In less than half a minute, the ridge of that grand central elevation 
■which separates the waters that flow north-west into the German Ocean 
from those that flow north into the Baltic, and south-east into the Black 
Sea, was presented to view, — executed almost as beautifully as an en- 
graving. A dozen crinkling strokes, made in the twinkling of an eye, 
represented the head waters of the great rivers which flow in different 
directions from that mountainous range ; while the children, almost as 
eager and excited as though they had actually seen the torrents dash- 
ing down the mountain sides, cried out, — Danube, Elbe, Vistula, 
Oder, &,c. The next moment I heard a succession of small strokes or 
taps so rapid as to be almost indistinguishable ; and. hardly had my eye 
time to discern a large number of dots made along the margins of the 
rivers, when the shout of LintZj Vienna, Prague, Dresden, Berlin, ,&c., 
struck my ear. At this point in tTie exercise, the spot which had been 
occupied on the black-board was nearly a cu-cle, of which the starting 
point, or place where the teacher first began, was the centre ; but now a 
few additional strokes around the circumference of the incipient continent, 
extended the mountain ranges outward towards the plains, — the children 
responding the names of the countries in which they respeetiA'ely lay. 
With a fcAV more flourishes, the rivers flowed onwards towards their sev- 
eral teniiinations ; and, by another succession of dots, new cities spi-ang 
up along their banks. By this time, the children had become as much 
excited as though they had been present at a Avorld-making. They rose 
in their seats, they flung out both hands, their eyes kindled, and their 
voices became almost vociferous, as they cried out the names of the dif- 
ferent places which, under the magic of the teacher's crayon, rose into 
view. Within ten minutes from the commencement of the lesson, there 
stood upon the black-board a beautiful map of Germany, with its moun- 
tains, principal rivers, and cities, the coast of the German Ocean, of the 
Baltic and the Black Seas ; and all so accurately proportioned, that I 
think only slight eiTors would have been found, had it been subjected to 
the test of a scale of miles." 

The black-board may be used, with success, in illustrating almost any 
branch of science. The design of the present work is to point out some 
of its uses, and to aid teachers and pupils in using it. The method of 
illustration, here adopted, is not a mere theory, which never had an exist- 
ence except in the brain of its author : it is the result of practical experi- 
ence. It is substantially the method which the author has used for a long 
series of years ; and, he believes, it is substantially the method pursued 
by many of the most distinguished and successful teachers of the day. It 
is true, the work might have been somewhat varied. The author might 



PREFACE. 7 

have piirsued his subjects further, and been more particular and minute in 
some of his details ; he might, -with equal propriety, liave taken up other 
subjects, and given other and further illustrations ; but this would have 
only increased the size and expense of the work, without adding materially 
to its utility. The plan and execution of the work are original, though 
the matei-ials have been gleaned from various sources. It is not designed 
to come in competition with, or to supersede, any other work. There is 
no work, with which the author is acquainted, which now occupies its 
place. 

For the want of such a work, our schools have long suffered. Scholars 
have been frequently obliged to study hour after hour upon their lessons ; 
and, after all, they have been able to gain only a very imperfect knowledge 
of them ; when, by the use of the black-board, the whole subject might 
have been explained in a very few minutes. The ideas which scholars 
obtain from their text-books are frequently faint, indistinct, and transitory. 
To deepen their impressions, and to render them more vivid and abiding, 
they want to see the subject illustrated on the black-board. Visible illus- 
trations will do more than page upon page of verbal explanation, because 
illustrations are better understood than words. 

To the author, it has long been a matter of surprise, that, after so much 
has been said upon the utility of the black-board in school, so little has 
been done to aid its introduction and use. Believing that such a book is 
needed, he has made it what it is ; and he now gives it to the public with- 
out further apology. 

JOHN GOLDSBURY. 

Boston, Januai-y, 1847. 



DIRECTIONS. 



A black-board should be, at least, three and a half feet wide, and ex- 
tend the whole length or breadth of the room, so that the whole class can 
work upon it at the same time. It may be made of hard finish on the 
walls of the room, and then painted black and varnished over ; or it may- 
be made of hoards, and affixed to the walls of the room, or suspended on 
pulleys, so as to be raised or let down at pleasure. And it should be placed 
at such a height, that a pupil of ordinary size can reach the top of it 
without difficulty. 

For writing on the board, chalk or crayons are used ; and it would be 
well to have brass holders for these, so as to require the same position of 
the fingers, as in holding a pen. The holders are so made as to be easily 
enlarged or contracted at pleasure, and thus fitted to the chalk. The 
challc and holders should be carefully preserved in a box. There should 
also be two or more articles for clearing the board, made of sheep-skin, 
tanned Avith the wool on, and so made as to be conveniently used in 
rubbing out operations on the board. 

Teachers may direct their pupils to commence at any part of the work 
which they choose. When they take up a particular subject, make them 
understand the whole gi-ound they go over ; for pupils are apt to be in 
hurry, and are inclined to pass over the first or elementary principles 
superficially. The boy is anxious to study arithmetic, before he under- 
stands the meaning of the Avords in which the sums are stated. The girl 
wishes to study grammar, before she can read a sentence coi-rectly. As, 
in the building of a house, the foundation should be first laid deep and 
strong ; so, in the education of children, the rudiments should be first 
taught, and thoroughly taught, before proceeding to higher studies. 

If more examples and illustrations, or different ones, are needed under 
any head, it will be easy for teachers to give them ; and they can pursue 
the subject to any extent they please. Some parts of the work are very 
brief Those subjects have been dwelt upon the most, which have been 
the most neglected in common schools. This is the reason why arithmetic 
and some other studies have not received more attention in this work. 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Analysis is tlie dividing of a compound into its elements, 
or constituent parts. 

The English Alphabet consists of twenty-six letters or 
elements, — a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, I, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, 
V, IV, X, y, z. These are divided into vowels and consonants. 

The VOWELS are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and ^.* 
These are called vowels, because they have a free and uninter- 
rupted sound of their own, without the aid of a consonant. 

The CONSONANTS are h, c, d,f, g, h,j, h, I, m, n,p, q, r, s, 
t, V, X, z, and sometimes w and y.* These are called conso- 
nants, because they have no free and uninterrupted sound of 
their own, without the aid of a vowel. 

Application, 

"What is analysis ? How many letters are there in the English 
language ? How are they divided ? Which are the vowels ? 
Why are they called voivels ? Which are the co7isonants ? 
Why are they called consonants ? When are w and y conso- 
nants ? When are they vowels ? Let each scholar write all 
the vowels, and all the consonants, separately, on the black- 
hoard or slate. After this is done, let each be required to 
pronounce, in a clear, distinct, and forcible manner, all the 
voivels, and then all the consonants, and to observe what is 
peculiar to each class of letters. In this way, scholars will 
soon learn the difference between vowels and consonaiits. 



=* Tfand y are consonants ^h.QXi they begin a syllable or word, and vowels 
when they end one. 



10 THE BLACK-BOARD. 



VOWELS. 



The different sounds of the vowels depend, not only on the 
length of time occupied in uttering them, but also on the 
manner of opening the mouth, and exerting the organs em- 
ployed in giving them utterance. Hence, the sounds may be 
long or short, hroad, open, middle, or close. In uttering the 
broad sounds, the mouth is opened very wide, somewhat less 
in uttering the open, still less in uttering the middle, and nearly 
shut in uttering the close. 



TABLE OF VOWEL SOUNDS. 
. . .12 3 4 5 6 

A has SIX sounds, as m ale, oil, arm, add, (rare, wad.) 
E has four sounds, as in me, met, {there, her.) 
/has four sounds, as m pine, pin, (marine, sir.) 

. ,1234 66- 

O has six sounds, as in no, move, nor, not, (loolf, done.) 
Z7has six sounds, as in tune, tub, bull, (rule, bury, busy?) 

12 3 

J, when a vowel, has three sounds, as in (chyle, hymn, myrrh.) 
W, when a vowel, has the sound of long u, as in (new.) 

Application. 

On what do the different sounds of the vowels depend f 
How is a broad sound produced ? — an open sound ? — a mid- 
dle sound ? — a close sound ? Give examples of each. How 
many sounds has a ? Give examples of each, and write them 
on the black-hoard or slate. Now, pronounce them distinctly 
and forcibly, and notice what is peculiar to each. Pursue the 
same course with each of the other vowels, e, i, o, u, y and w ; 
and take particular notice of the examples included in paren- 
thetical marks, as they are not generally regarded as distinct 
elements. 



ANALYSIS. 11 



DIPHTHONGS. 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels, uttered by a simple 
impulse of the voice, as ea in heat. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels, uttered in like 
manner, as eau in heau. 

A proper diphthong has both of the vowels sounded. There 
are \)\xifour proper diphthongs, oi, oy, ou, and ow, as in voice, 
joy, thou, now. 

An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded. 
There are twenty-six of these, aa, ae, ai, au, aw, ay, ea, ee, ei, 
eo, eu, ew, ey, ia, ie, io, oa, oe, oo, ou, ow, ua, ue, ui, uo, uy. . 
There are seventeen triphthongs, awe, aye, eau, eou, ewe, eye, 
ieu, iew, iou, oeu, owe, uea, uee, uai, nay, uoi, uoy. 

Application. 

"What is a diphthong ? What is a triphthong ? What is 
a proper diphthong ? What is an improper diphthong ? How 
many proper, and how many improper diphthongs ? Let each 
scholar write, on the black-board or slate, as many words as 
he can recollect, containing examples of each kind, and point 
out the diflference. 



VOWELS, DIPHTHONGS, AND TRIPHTHONGS, CLASSIFIED. 

There are seventeen tonic* elements, which may be classified 
in the following manner : 

1. ^, as in ale; ae, as in Gaelic ; ai, as in aim; au, as in 
yauge ; ay, as in pay ; aye, as in aye ; ea, as in break ; ei, as 
n vein; ey, as in they ; ua, as m persuade. 

2 

2. A, as in all; awe, as in awe; aw, as in law ; au, as in 
fraud; eo, as in George; oa, as in broad; ou, as in bought; 
>, as in nor. 

%. 'Z '■'■" * Producing tone. 



in leopard; oe, as in oedipus ; ue, as m guess; ii, as in bury ; y, 



12 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

3 

3. ^, as in arm ; au, as in aujit ; ea, as in heart ; ua^ as in 
guard. 

4 

4. Af as in ac?c?; a^, as in plaid. 

6. A, as in rare; aa, as in Aaron; ai, as in fair ; ay, as in 

3 

p7'ayer; ea, as in^ear; e^, as in heir; ey, as in eyry; e, as in 
if/^ere. 

6. ^, as in me ; ae, as m aegis ; ay, as in quay ; ea, as in 
Jlea; ee, as in feel; ei, as in seize ; eo, as in people ; ey, as in 

3 

^ey; ^e, as in field; oe, as in oesophagus; i, as in marine. 

2 

7. -^, as in wie^ ; a, as in many ; ai, as in saic? ; ay, as in 
sa^s; ea, as in death; ei, as in heifer ; ie, as in friend; eo, as 
in leopard; < 
as in myrrh. 

8. i^ as in j9me ; a^, as in a^s?e ; ei, as in height ; ey, as in 
eym^ ; eye, as in c^/^ / i^i as in c?^e ; ui, as in ^m7e / uy, as in 
^w;y ; ye, as in dfye ; y, as in My/i?. 

9. i^ as in pin ; ai, as in mountain ; e, as in pretty ; ee, as 
in been; ei, as in forfeit; eo, as in jngeon ; ia, as in marriage, 
ie, as in sieve ; o, as in women ; oi, as in tortoise ; ui, as ir 

6 2 

^wi7^ ; u, as in 5i«j/ ; y, as in hymn. 

10. 0, as in ?io; aw, as in hautboy ; eau, as in heau; eo, as 
in yeoman; eio, as in strew ; oa, as in 5oa^; oe, as in foe ; oo. 
as in door ; ou, as in though ; ow, as in snow ; owe, as in owe. 

2 

11. 0, as in move ; ew, as in screw ; oe, as in 5^oe; oew, as 
in manoeuvre ; oo, as in moon; ou, as in soup ; ui, as in JrmV; 

4 

u, as in rwZe. 

12. 0, as in woi; ow, as in cough; a, as in wad. 



ANALYSIS. 13 

13. U, SLS in ttcne ; eau, as in beauty; eu, as in feud; ew, as 
in new ; ewe, as in ewe ; ieu, as in adieu ; iew, as in view ; ue, 
as in hue; ui, as in juice. 

14. £/J as in tub ; eo, as in dungeon ; oe, as in does ; io, as 
in region ; ia, as in Britain ; oo, as in blood; ou, as in enough ; 

y, as in sa^i/r ; e, as in Aer ; i, as in 5^V ; o, as in c?o?2e. 

3 . , 5 . 

15. Z75 as in JwZ^; oo, as in w^^o?; 02«j as in could; o, as in 

wolf. 

32 3,1 

16. Oi, as in oz7; oy, as in toi/ {y like e). "v Proper 

17. Ozf, as in bound; ow, as in town (w like w). > diphthongs. 

Application. 

Let the pupils write on the black-board, or on their slateSy 
all the words representing the first class of elements, namely, 
ale, Gaelic, aim, guage, pay, aye, break, vein, they, persuade. 
Let each pupil then be required to pronounce each word 
distinctly and forcibly, and be made to understand, that they 
all belong to the same class, and contain the same compound 
element, the name sound of a, that is, the sound of a and e 
united. 

Then, let them write, as above directed, all the words rep- 
resenting the second class of elements, namely, all, awe, law, 
fraud, George, broad, bought, nor. Let each pupil then be 
required to pronounce each word distinctly and forcibly, and 
be made to understand, that they all belong to the same class, 
and contain the same simple element; which element they 
should be required to utter distinctly, apart from the other 
letters in each word. 

Pursue the same course with the other classes of elements. 
The words containing compound elements should be pro- 
nounced six times, loud, louder, loudest, — soft, softer, softest. 
The words containing simple elements should be pronounced 
thi'ee times only, after which the elements should be distinctly 
and forcibly uttered, apart from the other elements in each 
word. 

2 



14 THE BLACK-BOARD. 



CONSONANTS. 



The consonants are usually divided into mutes and semi' 
vowels. The mutes are h, d, p, t^ k, c and g hard. They are 
called mutes, because they obstruct the organs of speech, and 
are uttered with difficulty. The semi-vowels are f, I, m, n, r, 
s, V, z, X, c and y soft. They are called semi-voweh, because 
they have an imperfect sound of their own, without the aid 
of a vowel. X, m, n, and r, are called liquids, because they 
readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it were, into 
their sounds. 

Application. 

How are consonants divided ? "Which are the mutes ? 
"Why are they called mutes ? Which are the semi-vowels ? 
Why are they called semi-vowels ? Which are the liquids ? 
Why are they called liquids ? Let the pupils write on the 
black-board, or on their slates, all the mutes in regular order ; 
and then let them write words in which all the mutes are 
represented. Let them pronounce each of the words in the 
ordinary way, and then give their elemental sounds. — Then, 
let them write, in like manner, all the semi-vowels, and also 
words in which all the semi-vowels are represented. Let them 
pronounce each of the words in the ordinary way, and then 
give their elemental sounds. Let the scholars notice particu- 
larly what organs are employed in giving utterance to these 
different elements, — the teeth, the lips, the tongue, the palate, 
the nose. 



TABLE OF CONSONANT SOUNDS. 

B has but one sound, as in hahe, harh, hahhle. It is some- 
times silent, as in lamb. 

G has two sounds. Before a, o, ic, r, I, t, and at the end 
of syllables, it sounds hard like k, as in cart, cottage, cube, craft, 
cloth, fact, flaccid. Before e, i, and y, it sounds soft like 5, as 
in centre, cinder, mercij. It sometimes has the sound of z, as 
in discern ; and it is sometimes silent, as in czar. 



ANALYSIS. 15 

D Las but one sound, as in did. It sometimes takes the 
sound of <^" andy, as in soldier, grandeur, — and sometimes 
of t, as infixed. It is silent before g, as 'ui judgment. 

F has but one sound, as in fife ; except in of, in which it 
has the sound of v. 

G has two sounds. Before a, o, u, I, r, and at the end of a 
word., it sounds hard, as in gave, go, gun, glory, grow, hrag. 
Before e, i, and y, it sometimes has a soft sound, like/, as in 
genius, ginger, gypsy, — and sometimes a hard sound, as in 
get, giinlet. Before m and 7i it is silent, as in 'phlegm, consign, 
gnomon. 

H has an aspirate sound, as in he, hall, harm, hat. It is 
sometimes silent, as in heir, hour, honest, rhyme. 

J has the sound of soft g, as in joy, judge, just ; except in 
hallelujah, in which it sounds like y. 

K has invariably a hard sound, as in king, keep, hooh, hulk. 
It is silent before n, as in knave. 

L has but one sound, as in lull, low, laiu. It is sometimes 
silent, as in ivalk. 

M has but one sound, as in maim, man, murmur ; except 
in comptroller, in which it sounds like n. Before n, at the 
beginning of a Avord, it is silent, as in mnemonic. 

N has two sounds; the one pure, as in no, nine, nay ; the 
other a ringing sound, as in hank, think, singing. It is some- 
times silent, as in hymn. 

P has but one sound, as in pipe ; except in cuphoard and 
claphoard, in which it sounds like h. It is sometimes silent, 
as in empty. 

Q has the sound of k, and is always followed by u, as in 
quack. 

R has a rough sound, as in rage, run, roar ; and a smooth 
sound, as in her, sir, sister. 

S has a soft, buzzing sound, like z, as in rose, odds, dismal ; 
a sharp, hissing sound, as in say, so, sister. Sometimes it has 
the sound of sh, as in censure, and of zh, as in measure. It is 
sometimes silent, as in isle. 

T has one sound, as in tent, tide, time. Sometimes it has 
the sound of sh, as in nation, and of tsh, as in nature. It is 
sometimes silent, as in listen. 

V has but one sound, as in value, vain, view. 

W, when a consonant, has but one sound, as in way, ivise, 
world. It is sometimes silent, as in write. 



16 THE BLACK-BOABD. 

X has a sliarp sound, like hs, as in ^vax ; a flat sound, like 
<iz, as in exact ; and sometimes the sound of z, as in Xenophon, 

T^ when a consonant, has but one sound, as in you, year, 
yoke. 

Z has the sound of flat 5, as m freeze, zeal, 'prize ; and some- 
times of zh, as in glazier, seizure. 

Application. 

How many sounds has J ? Is it ever silent X Give the ex- 
amples, and write them on the hlaclc-board. Let one scholar 
pronounce and spell the first example in the ordinary way, 
and then analyze it, by giving each elemental sound, apart 
from the other letters or elements in the word. Then let 
another scholar pronounce, spell, and ayialyze the second ex- 
ample, in the same way ; and then another scholar, the third 
example ; and so on, till they are all finished. Should there 
not be a sufficient number of examples, under each head, for 
the purposes of drilling, they may be increased to any extent, 
by selecting words, at random, in which the letter occurs. — 
Again, how many sounds has c ? When does it sound like k ? 
When like s f Has it any other sound, or exception ? Give 
all the examples, and write them on the black-board. Let 
each scholar take his turn in pronouncing, spelling, and a7ia- 
lyzing them, as above directed. Pursue the same course with 
all the other consonants, -— c^, /, g, h,j, k, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, 
V, 10, X, y, z. 



DOUBLE CONSONANTS. 

Ch sounds like tsh, as in church, — like k, as in chorus, — 
like sh, as in chaise. 

Sh has but one sound, as in ship. 

Gh sounds like/, as in laugh, — like k, as in hough, — like 
g, as in ghost ; — and it is sometimes silent, as in plough. 

Gn serves to lengthen the preceding vowel, as in impugn. 

Ph sounds like/, as in phiz, — like v, as in Stephen; — 
and it is sometimes silent, as in phthisic. 

Ng has a nasal, ringing sound, as in hanging. 

Sc, before a, o, u, I, and r, sounds like sk, as in scan, score, 



SYLLABLES AND WORDS. it 

scud, sclerotic, scrag ; but before e, i, and y, it sounds like s, as 
in scene, science, Scythian. 

Th has two sounds ; the one vocal, as in tliis, thee ; the other 
aspirate, as in thing, thought. It has sometimes the sound of 
t, as in Tliomas. 

Note. All the double consonants are not here given. The 
others generally sound like their original elements. 

A'p'plication. 

How many sounds has ch f- and what are they ? Write the 
examples on the black-board ; and then analyze them, by 
spelhng them first as they are written, then by substituting the 
characters which represent their elementary sounds ; after 
which let their elementary sounds be given. Pursue a similar 
course with sh, gh, ph, ng, sc, and th, — especially with those 
that have more elementary sounds than one. 



SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

A syllahle is a word or part of a word, which is pronounced 
by a single impulse of the voice ; as, a, dis-tinct, ar-tic-u-la-tion. 

A word is a syllable or a combination of syllables, used as 
the sign of an idea ; as, plciy, playful, playfulness. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a word 
of two syllables, a dissyllable ; a Avord of three syllables, a tri- 
syllcd)le ; and a word of four or more syllables, 2i polysyllable. 

Every word has as many syllables as it has distinct articu- 
lations. The syllables are the divisions which are made in 
pronouncing it correctly. 

Application. 

What is a syllable'^ Write the examples on the black- 
board, and then pronounce them so as to show that you under- 
stand the meaning of a syllable. — What is a word 2 Write 
the examples on the black-board, and explain the difference 
between a word and a syllable. — What is a word of one syl- 
lable called ? — of two syllables ? — of three syllables ? — of 
four or more syllables ? Write examples of each on the black- 
board. — How many syllables can any word have ? 
'2* 



18 THE BLACK-BOARD. 



GENERAL RULES FOR THE DIVISION OP SYLLABLES. 

Rule 1. A single consonant, between two voAvels, must be 
joined to the last syllable ; as, de-light, bri-c?al, re-50urce : 
except in words compounded of inseparable prepositions ; as, 
up-on, wi-exen, di^-ease, ex-ist. 

Rule 2c Two consonantvS, proper to begin a word, coming 
between two vowels, must not be separated ; as, fa-hle, sti-Jle, 
in-stil. But if they are not proper to begin a word, they must 
be separated ; as, upmost, u^i-c^er, i7i-sect, er-ror, cof-fm. 

Rule 3. Three consonants, in the middle of a word, if they 
can begin a word, and the preceding vowel- be pronounced 
lo7iff, must not be separated ; as de-^Arone, de-s^roy. But if 
the vowel of the preceding syllable be short, one of the conso- 
nants usually belongs to that syllable ; as, dis-^ract, dis-^rove, 
dis-^rain. 

Rule 4. Three or four consonants, not proper to begin a 
syllable, coming between two vowels, — such of them as can 
begin a syllable, belong to the latter syllable, the rest to the 
former ; as, a5-5^ain, co7n-plete, e7n-hroi\, dsiii-dle, da^-^fe, 
C07i-striim. 

Rule 5. Two vowels, not being a diphthong, must be sepa- 
rated into two syllables ; as, crw-el, I'u-in. 

Rule 6. Compound words must be separated into simple 
words ; as, ice-hause, gloiu-ivorm, 7iever~the-less. 

Rule 7. Grammatical and other terminations are generally 
separated ; as, lov-est, lov-eth, lov-ing, lov-ed, lov-er, lovesick, 
love-tale, love-tokeri, &c. 

AppUcatioTi. 

What is the j^rs^ rule for the division of syllables ? What 
exception to it ? Write all the examples and exceptions on 
the black-board, and explain the rule. — What is the seco7id 
rule ? Write all the examples on the black-board, and explain 
the rule. — What is the third rule ? Write all the examples 
on the black-board, and explain the rule. — What is the fourth 
rule ? Write all the examples on the black-board, and explain 
the rule. — What is the ^^if/i rule ? Write all the examples 
on the black-board, and explain the rule. — What is the sixth 



RULKS FOR SPELLING. 19 

rule ? Write all the examples on the black-board, and explain 
?lie rule. ■ — What is the seventh rule ? Write all the examples 
m the black-board; and explain the rule. 



GENERAL KULES FOR SPELLING. 

EuLE 1. Monosyllables, ending with/, I, or s, preceded by 
a single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, vaill, muff, pass, 
sta^fj &c. The only exceptions are as, gas, has, his, if, is, of, 
this, thus, us, was, yes. 

Rule 2. Monosyllables,- ending with any consonant but/, I, 
or s, preceded by a single vowel, do not double the final con- 
sonant ; as, do^, mac?, ma/i, tub, &c. The only exceptions are 
Rdd, \)mi7i, hutt, huzz, abb, egg, hui, odd, purr. 

Rule 3. Monosyllables and words accented on the last 
syllable, ending with a single consonant, preceded by a single 
vowel, double that consonant when another syllable is added 
beginning with a vowel ; as, fog, foggy ; thin, ihmnish ; wi^, 
vfitty; begin, beginner, &c. But, if a diphthong precedes, or 
the accent is on the preceding syllable, the consonant remains 
single ; as, toil, toiZing ; mai^, maic^en j offe?^, offering ; Yisit, 
visiifed, &c.. 

Rule 4. Words ending with any double letter but I, and 
taking ness, less, ly, or fid, after them, preserve the letter 
double ; as, stij/ness, starless, carelessly, distressful, &c. But 
those w^ords which end with double I, and take ness, less, ly, or 
ful, after them, generally omit one I; as, fufeess, skinless, fu?ly, 
ski/ful, &c. 

Rule 5. Ness, less, ly, and ful, added to words ending with 
silent e, do not cut it off; as, paleness, guileless, closely, 
peaceful : except in a few words ; as, duly, tridy, awful, ivhollyy 
idly. 

Rule 6. Ment, added to words ending with silent e, gener- 
ally preserves the e from elision ; as, abatement, chastisement, 
incitement, &c. Abridgment, argument, judgment, lodgment^ 
acknowledgment, are exceptions to the rule. Like other ter- 
minations, ment changes y into i, when preceded by a conso- 
nant ; as, accompany, accompaument ; merry, merriment. 



^6 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

Rule 7. Able and thle, when united with words ending 
with silent e, aknost always cut it off", as blame, hlamable ; 
cure, curable ; sense, sensible, &c. But, if c or g soft comes 
before e in the original word, the e is then preserved in words 
compounded with able ; as, change, changeable ; peace, peace- 
able, &c. 

Rule 8. "When ing or ish is added to words ending with 
silent e, the e is usually omitted ; as, place, placing ; lodge, 
lodging ; slave, slavish ; prude, prudish. Words ending with 
ie or ye change ie and ye into y before ing ; as, dze, d^ing ; vze, 
v^ing ; lie, lying ; eye, eying. 

Rule 9. Compound words are generally spelled like the 
simple words of which they are composed ; 'a,?,, foot-ball, wind- 
mill, bidl-dog, there-by, here-after, &c. Many words, ending 
with double I, are exceptions to this rule ; as, al-ready, wel-fare, 
wil-ful, ful-fil, &c. 

Rule 10. Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, 
form the plural of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, 
past participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by changing 
y into i ; as, spy, sptes ; carry, carr^est, carrzeth or carr^es ; 
carrier, carr/ed ; happy, happzer, happiest. — The present 
participle in ing retains the y, that i may not be doubled ; as, 
carry, carrying ; buy, buying, &c. — Buty, preceded by a vowel, 
is not changed ; as, boy, boys ; cloy, cloyed, &c. ; except in lay, 
pay, and say. 

Rule 11. Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, 
upon assuming an additional syllable beginning with a conso- 
nant, commonly change y into i ; as, happy, happ?'ly, happiness. 
But, when y is preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely changed ; 
as, coy, coyly ; boy, boyish, boyhood ; joy, joyless, joyful. 

l^ote. — The foregoing rules are taken chiefly from Mr. 
Murray's Grammar. The orthography of a great number 
of English words is far from being uniform, even among 
good writers. 

Application. 

What is the first rule for spelling ? Write on the black- 
board all the examples given, and as many others as you can 
recollect, to show that you understand the rule. Then write 
all the exceptions by themselves, and point out the difference. 
— What is the second rule ? Write on the black-board all 



KULES OF ACCENT. 21 

the examples given, and as many others ^s you can recollect, 
to show that you understand the rule. Then write all the 
exceptions by themselves, and point out the difference. — 
What is the tliird rule ? Write on the black-board all the 
examples given, and as many others as you can call to mind, 
to show your knowledge of the inile. Then write all the 
given exceptions, and as many others as you can think of, by 
themselves, and point out the difference. — What is the fourth 
rule ? Write on the black-board all the examples given, and as 
many others as you can recollect, and point out the difference. 
— What is the Jifth rule ? Write on the black-board all the 
examples and exceptions, and explain them. — What is the 
sixth rule ? Write on the black-board all the examples and 
exceptions, and explain them. — What is the seventh rule ? 
Write on the black-board all the examples and exceptions, 
and explain them. — What is the eighth rule ? Write on 
the black-board all the examples and exceptions, and explain 
them. — What is the m?ith rule ? Write on the black-board 
all the examples and exceptions, and explain them. — What 
is the tenth rule ? Write on the black-board all the examples 
and exceptions, and explain them. — What is the eleventh 
rule ? Write on the black-board all the examples, and explain 
them. 



RULES OF ACCENT. 

Accent is regulated, in a great measure, by etymology. In 
words of Saxon origin, the accent is generally on the root or 
'principal part of the word. In words derived from the 
learned languages, it is generally on the termination, that is, 
on the penult or antepenult. In some words, used either as 
nouns or verbs, we lay the accent on different syllables to 
distinguish the words apart. Thus we have the radical, the 
terminational, and the distinctive accent, — the radical, as 
love, lovely, loveliness ; — the terminational, as harmony, har-- 
monious ; — the distinctive, as convert, to converts 



22 THE BLACK-BOARD. 



DISSYLLABLES. 



Rule 1. Dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, 
generally liave the accent on the first syllable ; as, childish.,* 
kingdom, detest, acted, toilsome, lover, fairer, foremost, zeal- 
ous, fulness, meekly, drtist. 

Rule 2. Dissyllables, formed by prefixing a syllable to 
the radical word, generally have the accent on the last sylla- 
ble ; as, beseem, hestow, return. 

Rule 3. In dissyllable words, which may be either nouns 
or verbs, the nouns generally have the accent on the first 
syllable, and the verbs on the last ; as, contract, to contract ; 
export, to export ; rebel, to rebel. 

Note. — This rule has many exceptions. Verbs generally 
follow the rule, but nouns often vary from it. 

Rule 4. All dissyllables ending in y, or, oio, le, ish, ic, 
ter, age, en, et, er, have the accent on the first syllable ; as, 
'cranny, labor, willow, battle, banish, cambric, batter, coura.ge^ 
fasten, quiet, cdnher. 

Note. — The exceptions, allow, avow, endow, below, bestow, 
virtually belong to Rule 2. 

Rule 5. Dissyllable verbs, terminating in a consonant 
and e final, as, comprise, escape ; or having a diphthong in the 
last syllable, as, appease, reveal ; or ending in two consonants, 
as, attend ; have the accent on the last syllable. 

Rule 6. Dissyllable nouns, having a diphthong in the last 
syllable, generally have their accent on the last syllable ; as, 
applause; except some words in ain ; as, certain, curtain, 
mountain. 

Rule 7. Dissyllables that have two vowels, which are 
separated in the pronunciation, have the accent on the first 
syllable; QS,Uon, riot, quiet, liar, ruin; except create. 

Application. 

By what is accent regulated ? How are words of Saxon 
origin accented? How are words derived from the Latin 



* The mark of accent, in the following examples, is, in all cases, placed 
on the voivd, instead of the consonant^ to which it frequently belongs. 



TRISYLLABLES. 23 

and Greek accented? What is distinctive accent? Give 
examples of the radical, terminational, and distinctive accent, 
and write them on the black-board. — What is the first rule ? 
Write all the examples, under the rule, on the black-board or 
slate ; then point out all their affixes, and put all the marks 
of accent in their proper places. — What is the second rule ? 
Write all the examples on the black-board ; then point out all 
their prefixes, and put all the marks of accent in their proper 
places. — What is the third rule ? Write all the examples on 
the black-board ; then put all the marks of accent in their 
proper places, and explain the difference ; also, state and ex- 
plain the note under the rule. — What is the fourth rule? 
Write all the examples on the black-board ; then put all the 
marks of accent in their proper places, and state and explain 
the note under the rule. — What is the fifth rule ? Write all 
the examples on the black-board ; then put all the marks of 
accent in their proper places, and explain the difference.—- 
What is the sixth rule ? Write all the examples on the black- 
board ; then put all the marks of accent in their proper places, 
and explain the difference. — What is the seventh rule ? Write 
all the examples on the black-board ; then put all the marks 
of accent in their proper places, and give the exception. 



■jCKISTLLABLES, 

Rule 1. Trisyllables, formed by adding a termination, or 
prefixing a syllable, retain the accent of the radical word ; 
as, loveliness, tenderness, contemner, physical, bespatter, com- 
menting, commending, assurancCi 

Rule 2. Trisyllables ending in ous, al, ion ; in ce, ent, 
ant, ate ; in y ; in re, le ; and in ude ; generally have the ac- 
cent on \h^ first syllable ; as, arduous, capital, mention ; coun- 
tenance, armament, elegant, propagate ; liberty ; eligible, thea- 
tre; plenitude. 

iVo^e.—- Some words, derived from other words, retain the 
radical accent; as, connivance, acquaintance. And some 
"words, whose middle syllable has a vowel before two conso- 
nants, as, promulgate, disciple, — and others, having an in- 
separable preposition, as, example, indenture,- — generally 
Lave the accent on the middle syllable. 



S4 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

Rule 3. Trisyllables ending in ator have the accent on 
the middle syllable ; as, spectator, creator, relator, &c., except 
orator, senator, hdrrator, legislator. 

Rule 4. Trisyllables which have a diphthong in the mid- 
dle syllable, as endeavor, or a vowel before two consonants, 
as domestic, have the accent on the middle syllable. 

Rule 5. Trisyllables that have their accent on the last 
syllable are of French origin ; as, acquiesce, repartee, maga- 
zine : or they are words formed by prefixing one syllable or 
more to a short syllable ; as, immature, overcharge. 

Application, 

What is \hQ first rule for accenting words of three syllables ? 
"Write all the examples, under this rule, on the black-board. 
First, point out the radical part of all the words, with their 
terminations and prefixes. Then put all the marks of accent 
in their proper places, and explain why the radical words are 
differently accented. — What is the second rule ? Write all 
the examples on the black-board ; then put all the marks of 
accent in their proper places, and explain the note under the 
rule. — What is the third rule ? Write all the examples and 
exceptions on the black-board, and put all the marks of accent 
in their proper places. — What is the fourth rule ? Write all 
the examples on the black-board, and put all the marks of ac- 
cent in their proper places. — What is the fifth rule ? Write 
all the examples on the black-board, and put all the marks of 
accent in their proper places. 



polysyllables. 

Rule 1. Polysyllables generally follow the accent of 
the words from which they are derived ; as, arrogating, con- 
tinency, incontinently, commendable, communicableness. 

Rule 2. Polysyllables ending in ator generally have the 
accent on the penult, or last syllable but one; as, emendd- 
tor, gladiator, equivocdtor, prevaricdtor. 

Rule 3. Polysyllables ending in le generally have the 
accent on the first syllable ; as, amiable, despicable : except 
/ 



DERIVATION OP WORDS. 25 

when tlie second syllable has a vowel before two consonants ; 
as, cotnbiistible, condemnahle. 

Rule 4. Polysyllables ending in ion, ous, and ty, have 
the accent on the antepenult, or last syllable but two ; as, 
salvation, victorious, activity. 

Note. — This rule applies to words ending in ia, io, and col; 
as, cyclopaedia, punctilio, despotical. 

Application. 

What is the first rule for accenting words of many sylla- 
bles ? Write all the examples (under the rule) on the black- 
board, and put all the marks of accent in their proper places. 
— What is the second rule ? Write all the examples on the 
black-board, and put all the marks of accent in their proper 
places. — What is the third rule ? Write all the examples and 
exceptions on the black-board, and put all the marks of accent 
in their proper places. — What is the fourth rule ? Write all 
the examples, including those in the note, on the black-board, 
and put all the marks of accent in their proper places. 

Note. — The foregoing rules are not infallibly correct. They 
contain the substance of Mr. Murray's rules, which are per- 
haps as complete as any that have ever been given to the 
public. Much, however, must be learned by ^example and 
authority. 



DERIVATION OP WORDS. 

All words are either primitive or derivative, simple or com- 
pound. A primitive word is not derived from any other 
word in the language, but is the first form in which it occurs ; 
as, hard,^oft, cold. A derivative word is derived from another 
word which is its primitive ; as, hardwes5, ^ohness, coldiness. 
A simple word may be either primitive or derivative : but it 
is particularly opposed to a compound ; as, do, primitive ; did, 
derivative ; both of which are simple words. A compound 
word is formed by joining two or more simple words together; 
as, sing-song, hooh-binder. 

Words are derived from one another in various ways, but 
principally in the three following : — 
3 



n/) 



26 ' THE BLACK-BOARD. 

1. Many words are formed by uniting together other words ; 
as, pen-knife, off-spring, high-way-rnan, an-other, myself, 
who-so-ever, where-so-ever, not-with-stand-ing, straight-way, 
here-of there-to, where-hy, hind-most, hand-some, for-get, in^ 
tend^ over -look, up-held, understand, with-draiv, al-ways, 
al-most, also, &c. 

2. Many words are formed by prefixing a letter, syllable, 
or foreign idiom at the beginning ; as, atheist, Ji'ped, compress, 
c?educt, ea^act, foresee, ge7ieaologj, homogeneous, in&x, Juris- 
diction, lithograiphy, misplace, nonentity, obtrude, ^o^^script, 
repay, ^wfecribe, transport, tmdo, &c. Some of these are in- 
separable prepositions. IMany words, in our language, with 
which prefixes, stand connected, are never used apart from 
them. The number of words formed by prefixes, amounts to 
many thousands. 

3. Many words are formed by affixing new terminations to 
other words, or by changing the original terminations ; as, 
goodness, hopeless, jojfid, yigorous, answerable, compressible, 
generak's^e, instinct^ve, blackish, healthy, man^y, sliorte?z, speak- 
er, priestess, drunkar^^, forfeiture, grandeur, foolery, perplex- 
ity, hillock', lamb^m, duckZmy, herbZe^, animalcwZe, contentment, 
kingc?om, bishopnV, priest^ooc?, friendship, hermitaye, physi- 
cian, &c. 

Many words are, also, formed by adding, dropping, or 
substituting some letter or letters in other words ; as, high, 
height ; long, length ; grass, graze ; foot, feet ; mouse, mice, 
&c. Besides, many words are derived from the Saxon, Greek, 
Latin, French, and other languages ; and the only assistance 
which the English scholar can obtain on this subject, is from 
his Dictionary, and his teacher. The teacher may be assisted 
in the discharge of his duty, by consulting " Oswald's Ety- 
mological Dictionary," " Town's Analysis of Derivative 
Words," " McElligott's Analytical Manual," " The Scholar's 
Companion," and Goldsbury's " Sequel," in which he will find 
most of the prefixes and affixes explained. 

Application. 

How are words divided ? What is a primitive word ? 
Write the examples on the black-board, and then add other 
examples, to show that you understand the meaning of a 
primitive word. — -What is a derivative word ? Write the ex- 



ENGLISH OR SAXON PREFIXES. 27 

amples on the black-board, and then add other examples, to 
sliow that you understand the meaning of a derivative word. — 
What is a simple word ? Write the examples on the black- 
board, and then add other examples, to show that you under- 
stand the meaning of a simple word. — What is a compound 
word ? Write the examples on the black-board, and then add 
other examples, to show that you understand the meaning of 
a compound word. — In how many ways are words derived 
from one another ? What is the Jirst way of forming words ? 
Write on the black-board as many examples as you can recol- 
lect, and explain their formation and meaning. — What is the 
second way of forming words ? Write on the black-board as 
many examples as you can recollect, and explain their forma- 
tion and meaning. — What is the third way of forming words ? 
Write on the black-board as many examples as you can recol- 
lect, and explain their formation and meaning. — Are words 
ever formed in any other way ? Write the examples on the 
black-board, and explain the difference. — From what sources 
are words principally derived ? and what assistance can the 
English scholar obtain in arriving at a knowledge of them ? 



ENGLISH OR SAXON PREFIXES. 

1. A signifies oji, in, to, or at ; as, afoot, on foot; abed, in 
bed ; afield, to the field ; afar, at a great distance. 

2. Be is the same word as h^, and signifies near, on, at, or 
to make ; as, Jecalm, to make calm ; besiege, at the seige. 

3. En or em signifies in, ijito, on, or, to make ; as, e/ithrone, 
to place on a throne ; embellish, to make beautiful. 

4. Fore signifies before ; as, foresee, to see before. 

5. Im or IN signifies to 7nake ; as, zmbitter, to make bitter. 

6. Mis signifies ill, false, or wrong ; as, m^sconduct, ill con- 
duct ; wizsapply, to apply wrong. 

7. Out signifies beyond; as, owflive, to live beyond. 

8. Over signifies above or too high ; as, overflow, to flow 
above ; oi^ercharge, to charge too high. 

9. Un, before a verb, signifies to take off ; as, wwdress, to 
take off clothes ; ««icrown, to deprive of a crown. 

10. Un, before an adjective, signifies not; as, t^wable, not 
able ; w?zgraceful, not graceful. 



28 THE BLACK-BOAHD. 

11. Under signifies beneath; :is, unde7'h\^, to h\(l beneath. 

1 2. With signifies from or against ; as, iuith^Y2iYr, to draw 
from ; wiVAstand, to stand against. 



LATIN PREFIXES. 

1. A, AB, and abs, signify /ro??i or away ; as, avert, to 
turn from ; abject, to throw away ; aZ>stract, to draw away. 

2. Ad, and the forms it assumes, a, ac, af, ag, al, an, 
AP, AR, A3, AT, signify to ; as, ac?here, to stick to ; ascribe, to 
give to ; accede, to yield to ; a/Hx, to fix to ; aggravate, to 
make heavy to ; alleviate, to make light to ; annihilate, to 
make to nothing ; append, to Lang to ; arrogate, to assume to ; 
assimilate, to make like to ; attract, to draw to. 

3. Am signifies round or about ; as, a«^bition, a going about, 

4. Ante signifies before ; as, a^zifecedent, going before. 

5. CiRCUiM signifies about or round; as, cireuynventj to 
come round about. 

6. Cis signifies on this side ; as, czsalpine, on this side of 
the Alps. 

7. Con (cum), and co, cog, col, com, cor, signify 
together or with ; as, co?^join, to join together ; cooperate, to 
work together ; connate, born together ; coHect, to gather to- 
gether ; co??zpress, to press together ; corroborate, to make 
strong together. 

8. Contra signifies against; as, contradizi, to speak 
against. 

9. Counter signifies against; as, counteract, to act 
against. 

10. De signifies down ox from ; as, c?eject, to cast down. 

11. Di, Dis, and dif, signify asunder or away ; as c?^■lacer- 
ate, to tear asunder ; c^z'smiss, to send away ; differ, to bear 
away. 

12. E, ef, ex, and ec, signify out or out of; as, eject, to 
throw out ; e/Bux, to flow out ; exclude, to shut out ; ecstacy, a 
standing ozf< of (one's mind for joy). 

13. Extra signifies beyond; as, extraordinary, beyond 
ordinary. 

14. In, il, im, ir, before verbs, signify in or into, on or 
upo7i ; as, n?ject, to throw into ; zYluminate, to make light in; 
imY>'dvi, to carry into ; irradiate, to shine upon. 



LATIN PREFIXES. S9 

15. In, ig, il, im, ir, before adjectives, signify not ; as, in- 
finite, not finite ; ignohle, not noble ; «71egal, not legal ; im- 
mortal, not mortal ; ^Vrational, not rational. 

16. Inter signifies between or among ; as, interpose, to 
place hetiveen. 

17. Intro signifies vjithin ; as, zn^roduce, to lead within. 

18. JuxTA signifies near- to; as,y?ixtoposition, a position 
near to. 

19. Mal and male signify ill or had ; as, waZadministra- 
tion, had administration ; ??z«Zecontent, ill content. 

20. Ob, oc, of, and op, signify in the way, against, out ; 
as, object, to cast in the way ; occur, to run against or to 
happen ; o/fer, to bring in the way ; oppose, to place in the 
way. 

21. Per signifies through or hy ; as, pervade, to go through. 

22. Post signifies a/?er ; as, jpos^script, written o/l^er. 

23. Pre (prge) signifies before ; as, j^refix, to fix before. 

24. Preter (praster) signifies beyond ot past ; as, preter- 
natural, beyond what is natural. 

25. Pro signifies /or, /on^arc?, or /ori^; as, j^ronoun, /or 
a noun ; provoke, to call forth. 

26. Re signifies hack or again ; as, recall, to call bach. 

27. Retro signifies backwards; as, retrograde, going 
backwards. 

28. Se signifies apart or aside ; as, seduce, to draw aside. 

29. Sub, sue, suf, sup, sur, and sus, signify under or 
after ; as, swfecribe, to write und^er ; sifcceed, to go under or 
after ; suffer, to bear under ; sup-pose, to place under ; sur- 
render, to go under ; sustain, to hold under. 

30. Subter signifies under or beneath ; as 5w6^erfuge, a 
flying under or beneath (a shift). 

31. Super signifies above, over, or upon ; as, S2/perscribe, 
to write upon ; super£idd, to add over or above. 

32. Sur (Fr. cont. of super) signifies above, over, upon ; 
as, survcioxnxi, to rise above ; sur^'we, to live after or above. 

33. Trans signifies across, over, or beyond ; as ^rawsport, 
to carry oi?er or across ; transgress, to go beyond. 

34. Ultra signifies beyond ; as, w/^^ra-religious, beyond 
what is religious. 

3* 



BO THE BLACK-BOAED. 



gsHeeIv prefixes. 



1, A or AN signifies wa7it of or without ; as, apathy, want 
of feeling ; ansLrchj, without government. 

2. Amphi (ambi, L.) signifies both or double ; as, amphi^ 
bious, living both on land and in water. 

S. Ana signifies back, again, or separate ; as, analjza, to 
resolve agai7i or to trace back ; ajiatomj, to cut apart or to 
separate. 

4. Anti or ANT signifies against or opposed to ; as, anti' 
Christ, against Christ ; a7itavctic, opposite to the arctic. 

5. Apo or APH signifies /rom or aivay, as, apogQQ,from 
the earth ; aph<d\\or\, away from the sun. 

6. Arch signifies chief; as, arc/ibishop, c^«e/ bishop. 

7. Cata or CAT signifies doivn ; as, catarrh, a flowing 
down ; catechize, to question down closely. 

8. DiA or Di signifies through or asunder ; as, c?zameter, 
through the measure ; c^zasresis, a taking asunder. 

9. En or em signifies in or otz ,v as, emphasis, stress on a 
word. 

10. Epi signifies upon ; as, c^^taph, z«^o?z a tomb. 

11. Ge signifies the earth ; as, ^reology, the science of the 
earth. ^ 

12. Hemt, DEMI, and semi, signify /iaTf; as, ^em/sphere, 
half a sphere ; de?7iigod, half a god ; semicircle, half a circle. 

13. HypER signifies over or above ; b.s, hgpercritic9.l, over 
critical. 

14. Hypo signifies under ; as, ^^othesis, a placing under. 

15. Hydro signifies water; as, hydrometer, a water 
measure. 

16. Meta signifies beyond or change ; as, metaphor, carry- 
ing beyond the ordinary meaning, or changing the expression 
by a figure. 

17. Para or par signifies through, against, or similar; 
a,s, ^dtrorgraph, through a writing ; /:)a7'ody, similar to an ode. 

18. Peri signifies round, about ; as, joenphrasis, talking 
round a subject, or circumlocution. 

19. Syn, syl, sym, and sy, signify w'^Y/i or together ; as, 
synts^^x, a placing together ; s_ynable, taking together with the 
lips ; sympathy, feeling ivith or together ; system, standing 
together, as a whole. 



AFFIXES OH SUFFIXES. 31 



AFFIXES OR SUFFIXES. 



1. Affixes used in forming ?ioims to represent tlie doer or 
2Jerfo7yner. 

1. An or IAN, ANT, AR, ARD, ARY, ATE, Signify OUe wko, 

or the person that ; as, Christian, one icho follows Christ ; 
pagaw, one who worships idols ; assista^i^, one who assists ; 
beggar, one who begs ; drunkarc?, one who gets drunk ; mission- 
ary, one who is sent on a mission ; advocate, one who pleads a 
cause. 

2. Ee, eer, er. ent, signify one who, or ilie person that ; 
as, absentee, on6 who is absent ; mountaineer, one who dwells 
on a mountain ; visite?-, one who visits ; patie^zif, one who suffers. 

3. 1st, ite^ve, signify one who, or the person that ; as, 
theon*5^, one who theorizes ; favonVe, one who is favored ; 
captzV'c, one who is taken in war. 

4. Or signifies one who, or the person that ; as, intercessor, 
one who intercedes ; governo?*, one who governs. 

5. Ster signifies one who ; as, songster, one who sings. 

II. Affixes used in forming nouns to represent being, state 
of being, or the place where. 

1. AcY, AGE., ANCE, ANCY, ARY, Signify being or state of 
being ; as, accuracy, being accurate ; peerage, the state of being 
a peer ; vigila;ice, state of being vigilant ; occupa?icy, state of 
being occupied ; library, where books are kept. 

2. Ence, ency, escence, signify being, state of being, or 
becoming ; as, abhorre?iee, state of being abhorrent ; consist- 
ency, state of being consistent ; convalesee?zce, state of becoimng 
better. 

o. Ion signifies act of or state of being, and is equivalent 
to the participial termination ing, implying action or influence 
exerted ; as, contribut^o?^, the act of contributmy ; subordi- 
\\?dion, the state of being subordinate. 

4. Ment and mony signify being, state of being, act of, 
or the thing that ; as, abase??ien;, being abased ; concealment, 
act of concealing ; vefvesliment, the thing that refreshes ; acri- 
mony, state of being sharp. 

5. Ory signifies the place ivhere or thing that ; as, depos- 
itory, the place where things are deposited ; memory, the thing 
ov power that calls to mind. 



32 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

6. Tat>E or TIDE, and ty, signify being or state of being , 
as, TimXiitude, being many ; solicit?i<ie, state of being anxious ; 
brevity, being short or concise. 

7. Y signifies being, state of being, or ^ing ;' as, harmony, 
being harmonious ; jealousy, state of being jealous. 

III. Affixes used in forming nouns to represent some peculiar 
doctrine, condition, habit, quality, state, office, or thing. 

1 . Cle signifies little or stnall ; as, canticZe, a little 
song. 

2. DoM signifies doininion ; as, kingcZom, ^7^e dominion of 
a king ; freedoyn, the dominion of the free. 

3. Hood signifies state of ; as, boyhood, the state of a boy. 

4. Ice, ics, ism, signify ^7ie thing done, thi^ that, the doc- 
trine, art, or science of, or the state of being ; as, serv^ce, <Ae 
thing served ; ethics, ^/^e doctrine of morality ; parallelism, the 
state of being parallel. 

5. Ling or lin signifies little or young ; as, gosling, a 
young goose. 

6. Ness signifies being or state of being, or quality of 
being;- as, barrem2ess, a being barren; blessed/cess, state of 
being blessed; softness, the qualify of being soft. 

7. Ry signifies a being, the art of the place ivhere, or prop- 
erty of; as, bravery, a being brave ; casuistry, the art or science 
of a casuist ; nursery, the place where young children or trees 
ar reared. 

8. Ship signifies office of or state of ; as, rectorship, office 
of a rector ; copartners^?)!?, state of having equal shares. 

9. Ure signifies the thing, state, power, or «r^ of; as, scrip- 
ticre, the thing written ; legislatz^re, the power that makes laws; 
agriculti^re, the art of cultivating fields. 

IV. Affixes used in forming adjectives to represent the quali- 

ties or characteristics of persons or things. 

1. Ac, AL, or ICAL, signify of, belonging to, or relating to ; 
as, demoniac, belonging to the devil ; filial, belonging to a son ; 
nauiical, relating to ships or sailors. 

2. Aceous signifies of, consisting of, or resembling ; as, 
corinaccows, consisting of, or resembling leather. 

3. An, ar, ary, signify belonging, relating, or pertaining 
to ; as, humcm, belonging to a man ; regular, relating to rule ; 
literary, relating to letters. 



AFFIXES OR SUFFIXES. 83 

4. Ant and ent signify heing, or ^mg ;' as, abunda??^, 
aboundm^ ; cohercTi^, siioking together. 

5. Ate signifies having or heing ; as, animate, having life ; 
adeqn<7if?, heing equal to. 

6. Ble signifies 7nag or can he, worthy of, fit to he ; as, 
portaJ/e, that may or c«?i he carried ; lauda^/e, worthy of 
praise ; eligiWe, fit to he chosen. 

7. En signifies made of ; as, woode??, 7nade o/wood. 

8. EscENT signifies growing or hecoming ; ix^, ^uivescent, 
growing rotten. 

9. FuL signifies /if// o/; as, liope/M/,/w// o/hope. 

10. Ic, ID, INE, signify of belonging, or relating to ; as, 
academ^■c, belonging to an academy ; iimid, of ov belonging to 
fear ; inarms, of or belonging to the sea. 

11. Ile and ive signify 7?2(2?/ or can he, having poiuer, tend- 
ing ; as, fiexiVe, that may or can he bent ; persaas^^;e, having 
power to persuade. 

12. IsH signifies like or resembling, little of or somevjhat ; 
as, childi57i, /^X-e or resembling a child ; greenzs^, ZiV^/e q/ or 
someiohat green. I 

13. Less signifies without or wanting ; as, art?es5, without 
art ; help/e5S, wanting help. 

14. Like or ly signifies like or resembling ; as, man/zX'^, 
like a man ; earthZy, resembling the earth. 

15. Ory signifies of, belonging, or relating to ; as, prefa- 
tory, belonging to a preface ; piscatory, relating to fish. 

16. OsE signifies /w/Z o/; as, verbose, /«// o/ words. 

17. Ous signifies yt^Z/ of having, belonging ov^iven to ; as, 
dsLngeYO(/s,fuU of danger ; biliows, co?isisting of bile ; conten- 
tious, given to contention. 

18. Some signifies someivhat or fidl of; as, gladsowze, some- 
what glad ; fro\icso?ne, full o/ frolics. 

19. Ward signifies in the direction of; as, homeward, in 
the direction of home. 

20. Y signifies /i^ZZ of, covered with, or 7nade of; as, knotty, 
full of knots ; flowery, covered with flowers ; horny, made of 
horns. 

V. Affixes used in forming verbs to represent some peculiar 
action or infiuence. 
1. Ate signifies to make, to give, to put, or to take ; as, 
renovate, to make new again ; animate, to give life j invigovate, 
to pvt vigor into j exonerate, to take the burden from. 



34 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



2. En signifies to make ; as, len.gthe?z, to make long ; glad- 
den, to make glad. 

3. Fy signifies to make ; as, magni/y, to make great ; puri/y, 
^0 waX-e pure. 

4. IsH signifies to make ; as, finzVi, ^o make an end ; pub- 
\ish^ to make public. 

5. IzE or ISE signifies ifo make or ^o ^/ve ; as, civik'^;^, to 
make civil ; autliori;2;e, to give authority. 

Note. — Let the preceding Prefixes and Affixes be carefully 
studied and well understood, and the scholar will meet with 
no difl&culty in understanding the etymology, or the definition^ 
of words. Some of the Prefixes and Affixes, in certain words, 
retain very little of their original meaning. The following 
examples will serve to give some idea of the plan intended 
to be pursued in studying etymology. 



Example 1. 

Scribe, (from scribo, scriptum, L.) to write; a writer} 
a clerk or secretary ; a doctor of the Jewish law. 



Scribe 
Scrib ed 
Scrib ing 
Scrib ble 
Scrib bl ed ^ 
Scrib bl ing 
Scrib bl er 
Scrib ble ment 
Scrib at ious 
Scrib bet 
Scrip 
Script 
Script ory 
Script ure 
Script ur ist 
Script ur al 
Script ur al ist 
Script ur al ness 
Script ur ian 
Scrip page • 
Scriv en er 



Ad scribe (or) 
A scribe 
A scrib ed 
A scrib ing 
A scrib able 
A script ion 
A script it ious 

Anti script 
Anti script ur al 
Anti script ur ism 
Anti script ur ist 

Circum scribe 
Circum scrib ed 
Circum scrib ing 
Circum scrib er 
Circum script ive 
Circum script ive ly 
Circum script ible 
In circum script ible 



Un circum scrib ed 

Con script 
Con script ion 

De scribe 
De scrib ed 
De scrib ing 
De scrib er 
De scrib able 
De script ion 
De script ive 
De script ive ly 
De script ive ness 
In de scrib able 
In de script ive 
Un de scrib ed 

Ex scribe 
Ex scrib ed 
Ex scrib ing 



ETYMOLOGY. 35 

Ex script Pre scrib ing Sail script 

Pre scrib er 

In scribe Pre script Sub scribe 

In scrib ed Pi'e script ion Sub scrib ed 

In scrib ing Pre scri[)t um Sub scrib ing 

In scrib er Pre script ive Sub scrib er 

In scrib able Pre script ible Sub script 

In script ive Pre script ibil ity Sub script ion 

In script ion Im pre script ible 

Un in scrib ed Ira pre script ibil ity Super scribe 

Im pre script iblj Super scrib ed 

Inter scribe Un pre scrib ed Super scrib ing 

Inter scrib ed Super script 

Inter scrib ing Pro scribe Super script ion 

Pro scrib ed 

Manu script Pro scrib ing Tran scribe 

Pro scrib er Tran scrib ed 

Mis a scribe Pro script Tran scrib ing 

Mis a scrib ed Pro script ive Tran scrib er 

Mis a scrib ing Pro script ion Tran scrib bier 

Tran script 

Non de script Re scribe Tran script ion 

Pe scrib ed Tran script ive 

Post script Re scrib ing Tran script ive ly 

Post script ed Re script 

Re script ion Un script ur al 

Pre scribe Re script ive ly Un script ur al ly 

Pre scrib ed 



Example 2. 

Press, (from premo, pressujn, L.) to squeeze or force with 
weight ; an instrument or machine by which any thing is 
squeezed, crushed, or forced into a more compact form; a 
machine for printing; a crowd; urgency. 

Press Press ly Press work 

Press ed Press ness 

Press ing Press it ant Com press 

Press ing ly Press bed Com press ed 

Press er Press gang Com press ing 

Press ion Press man Com press ion 

Press ure Press money Com press ure 



se 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



Com press ive 
Com press ive ly 
Com press ible 
Com press ible ness 
Com press ibil ity 
Incompressible 
In com press ible ness 
In compressibility 
Un com press ed 
Un com press ible 

Counter press ure 

De press 
De press ed 
De press ing 
De press or 
De press ion 
De press ive 
De press ible 
Un de press ed 

Ex press 
Ex press ed 
Ex press ing 
Ex press er 
Ex press ly 
Ex press ness 
Ex press ion 
Ex press ion less 
Ex press ure 
Ex press ible 
Ex press ive 



Ex press ive ly 
Ex press ive ness 
In ex press ive 
In ex press ible 
In ex press ibil ity 
In ex press ibly 
Un ex press ed 
Un ex press ible 
Un ex press ive 
Un ex press ive ly 

Im press 
Im press ed 
Im press ing 
Im press ure 
Im press ment 
Im press ive 
Im press ive ly 
Im press ive ness 
Im press ible 
Im press ibil ity 
Re im press 
Re im press ed 
Re im j^ress ing 
Re im press ion 
Un im press ed 
Un im press ible 
Un im press ive 
Un im press ive ness 

Op press 
Op press ed 
Op press ing 



Op press or 
Op press ion 
Op press ive 
Op press ive ly 
Op press ive ness 
Un op press ed 
Un op press ive 

Over press 
Over press ed 
Over press ing 

Re press 
Re press ed 
Re press ing 
Re press ion 
Re press er 
Re press ive 
Re press ive ly 
Ir re press ible 

Sup press 
Sup press ed 
Sup press ing 
Sup press or 
Sup press ion 
Sup press ive 
In sup press ive 
In sup press ion 
In sup press ible 
Un sup press ed 

Un press ed 



Example 3. 

Tract, (from traho, ti^actum, L.) to trace or draw out ; a 
quantity of land ; a treatise ; a small book or pampUet. 



Tract 
Tract ed 
Tract ing 
Tract or 



Tract ive 
Tract ion 
Tract ory 
Tract rix 



Tract ar ian 
Tract ate 
Tract ator 
Tj*act ation 



ETYMOLOGY. 



37 



Tract ile 
Tract il ity 
Tract able 
Tract abil ity 
Tract ably 
Tract able ness 

Abs tract 
Abs tract ed 
Abs tract ing 
Abs tract er 
Abs tract ion 
Abs tract ed ly 
Abs tract ed ness 
Abs tract ive 
Abs tract ive ly 
Abs tract ly 
Abs tract ness 

At tract 
At tract ed 
At tract ing 
At tract ing ly 
At tract ion 
At tract ic 
At tract ic al 
At tract ile 
At tract ive 
At tract ive ly 
At tract ive ness 
At tract or 
At tract able 
At tract abil ity 
At trah ent 
Un at tract ed 
Un at tract ive 

Con tract 
Con tract ed 
Con tract ing 
Con tract ive 
Con tract or 



Con tract ion 
Con tract ed ly 
Con tract ed ness 
Con tract ible 
Con tract ibil ity 
Con tract ible ness 
Con tract ile 
Con tract il ity 
In con tract ed 
Pre con tract 
Pre con tract ed 
Pre con tract ing 

De tract 
De tract ed 
De tract ing 
De tract ing ly 
De tract or 
De tract ion 
De tract ious 
De tract ive 
De tract er 
De tract ress 
De tract ory 

Dis tract 
Dis tract ed 
Dis tract ing 
Dis tract er 
Dis tract ion 
Dis tract ive 
Dis tract ible 
Dis tract ile 
Dis tract ed ly 
Dis tract ed ness 
Un dis tract ed 
Un dis tract ed ly 
Un dis tract ed ness 

Ex tract 
Ex tract ed 
Ex tract ing 
4 



Ex tract ion 
Ex tract or 
Ex tract ive 
Ex tract ible 

In tract ile 
In tract able 
In tract ably 
In tract able ness 
In tract abil ity 

Pro tract 
Pro tract ed 
Pro tract ing 
Pro tract er 
Pro tract ive 
Pro tract ion 
Pro tract or 
Un pro tract ed 

Re tract 
Re tract ed 
Re tract ing 
Re tract ion 
Re tract ible 
Re tract ile 
Re tract ive 
Re tract ate 
Re tract ation 
Re trax it 
Un re tract ed 

Sub tract 
Sub tract ed 
Sub tract ing 
Sub tract ion 
Sub tract er 
Sub tract ive 
Sub trail end 

Un tract able 
Un tract able ness 



88 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



Example 4. 



Equal, (from equus or cequus, L.) even, just, right ; one 
of the same rank, age, or merit ; to make equal. 



Equal 
Equal ed 
Equal ing 
Equal ly 
Equal ness 
Equal ity 
Equal ize 
Equal iz ed 
Equal iz ing 
Equal iz ation 
Equa ble 
Equa ble ness 
Equa bil ity 
Equa bly 
Equ angular 
Equ anim ity 
Equ anim ous 
Equ ant 
Equat ion 
Equat or 
Equat or ial 
Equat or ial ly 
Equi angl ed 
Equi angular 
Equi crur al 
Equi crure 
Equi differ ent 
Equi distant 
Equi distance 
Equi distant ly 
Equi form ity 
Equi later al 
Equi librate 
Equi librat ed 
Equi librat ing 
Equi librat ion 



Equi libri um 
Equi libri ous 
Equi libri ous ly 
Equi libr ist 
Equi libr ity 
Equi multi pie 
Equi necessar y 
Equi nox 
Equi noct ial 
Equi noct ial ly 
Equi numer ant 
Equi penden cy 
Equi poise 
Equi poUence 
Equi pollen cy 
Equi pollent 
Equi pollent ly 
Equi ponderate 
Equi ponderat ed 
Equi ponderat ing 
Equi ponder ance 
Equi ponder ancy 
Equi ponder ous 
Equi pondi ous 
Equi radic al 
Equi sonance 
Equit y 
Equit able 
Equit ably 
Equit able ness 
Equit ant 
Equit ancy 
Equit ation 
Equi valence 
Equi valency 
Equi valent 



Equi valent ly 
Equi valve 
Equi vocal 
Equi vocal ly 
Equi vocal ness 
Equi vocate 
Equi vocat ed - 
Equi vocat ing 
Equi vocat ion 
Equi vocat or 

Ad equate 
Ad equat ing 
Ad equate ly 
Ad equate ness 
Ad equat ion 
Ad equa cy 
In ad equate 
In ad equate ly 
In ad equate ness 
In ad equat ion 
In ad equa cy 

In equal 
In equal ity 
In equa ble 
In equit able 
In equi later al 
In equi librio 
In equi valve 
In iquit y 
In iquit ous 
In iqui ous 

Un equal 
Un equal ly 



Tin equal able 
Un equa ble 
Un equal ed 



ETYMOLOGY. 

Un equal ness 
Un equit able 
Un equit ably 



Un equi vocal 
Un equi vocal ly 
Un equi vocal ness 



Example 5. 



Type, (from typus, L., or rvirog, Gr., or type, Fr.) a figure, 
an emblem, a symbol, or a sign ; a printer's letter. 



Type 
Typ ic 
Typ ic al 
Typ ic al ly 
Typ ic al ness 
Typi fy 
Typi fi ed 
Typi fy ing 
Typi fi er 
Typi fie ation 
Type found ing 
Type metal 
Typo cosmy 
Typo grapby 
Typo graph er 
Typo graph ic 
Typo graph ic al 



Typo lite 
Typo logy 

Anti type 
Anti typ ic al 
Anti typ ous 

Arche type* 
Arche typ al 
Arche typ ic al 

Chrono type 

Ec type 
Ec typ al 

Phono type 



Phono typ ic 
Phono typ ic al 
Phono typy 

Pre typi fy 
Pre typi li ed 
Pre typi fy ing 

Proto type 

Stereo type 
Stereo typ ed 
Stereo typ ing 
Stereo typ er 
Stereo typ ic 
Stereo typo graphy 
Stereo typo graph er 



Example 6. 

Orthography, (from the Gr. opiJof, correct, and ypa^w, to 
write,) the art of spelling words, or word-malcing. 



Ortho graphy Ortho dox ly 

Ortho graph er Ortho dox ness 

Ortho graph ic Ortho dox y 

Ortho graph ic al Un ortho dox 
Ortho graph ic al ly 
Ortho graph ist Ortho dromy 



Ortho dox 
Ortho dox al 
Ortho dox al ly 



Ortho drom ics 
Ortho drom ic 

Ortho epy 

*See Glossary. 



Ortho ep ist 
Ortho epic al 

Ortho gon 
Ortho gon al 

Ortho logy 

Ortho metry 



40 

Ortho nyx 

Ortho pedy 
Ortho ped ic 
Ortho ped ic al 

Ortho pnoea 

Ortho ptera 
Ortho pter an 
Ortho pter ous 

Ortho style 

Graph ic 
Graph ic al 
Graph ic al ly 
Graph ite 
Graph ometer 

Aero graphy 

Adeno graphy 

Anemo graphy 

Angio graphy 

Apo graph 

Astro graphy 

Auto graphy 
Auto graph 
Auto graph al 
Auto graph ic 
Auto graph ic al 

Biblio graphy 
Biblio graph er 
Biblio graph ic 
Biblio graph ic al 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 

Biblio graph ic al ly Cosmo graph er 
Cosmo graph ic al 
Cosmo graph ic al ly 



Bio graphy 
Bio graph er 
Bio graph ic 
Bio graph ic al 
Bio graph ic al ly 
Auto bio graphy 

Brachy graphy 
Brachy graph er 

Caco gi'aphy 

Calli graphy 
Calli graph er 
Calli graph ic 
Calli gi-aph ic al 
Calli graph ist 

Chalco graphy 
Chalco graph er 
Chalco graph ist 

Chiro graphy 
Chiro graph 
Chiro graph ei* 
Chiro graph ic 
Chiro gi^aph ic al 
Chiro graph ist 

Christiano gi'aphy 

Chromato graphy 

Chrono graphy 
Chi'ono graph er 

Cometo graphy 
Cometo graph er 



Crypto graphy 
Crypto graph al 

Crystallo graphy 
Crystallo graph er 
Crystallo graph ic 
Crystallo graph ic al 

Dia graph 
Dia graph ics 
Dia graph ic al 

Epi graph 
Epi graph ics 

Ethno graphy 
Ethno graph er 
Ethno graph ic 
Ethno graph ic al 

Geo graphy 
Geo graph er 
Geo graph ic 
Geo graph ic al 
Geo graph ic al ly 

Glosso graphy 
Glosso graph er 
Glosso graph ic al 

Glypho graphy 
Glypho graph er 
Glypho graph 

Glypto graphy 
Glypto graph ic 



Cosmo graphy Hagio graphy 



ETYMOLOGY. 



41 



Hagio graph er 
Hagio graph 
Hagio graph al 

Hiero graphy 
Hiero graph er 
Hiero graph ic 
Hiero graph ic al 

Historio graphy 
Historio graph er 
Historio graph ic al 

Horo graphy 
Horo logio graphy 
Horo logio graph er 
Horo logio graph ic 

Hydro graphy 
Hydro graph er 
Hydro graph ic 

Ichno graphy 
Ichno graph ic al 

Icono graphy 

Lexico gi'aphy 
Lexico graph er 
Lexico graph ic 
Lexico graph ic al 

Litho graph 
Litho graph ing 
Litho graph er 
Litho graph ic 
Litho graph ic al 
Litho graphy 

Metallo graphy 

Micro graphy 



Mimo graphy 
Mimo graph er 

Mono graphy 
Mono graph 
Mono graph er 
Mono graph ic 
Mono graph ic al 
Mono graph ist 

Myo graphy 
Myo graphic 
Myo graph ic al 
Myo graph ist 

Ourano graphy 
Qurano graph ist 

Para graph 
Para graph ic 
Para graph ic al 

Photo graph 
Photo graph ic 
Photo graph y 

Pliyto graphy 

Poly graphy 
Poly graph 
Poly graph ic 
Poly graph ic al 

Psalmo graphy 
Psalmo graph er 
Psalmo graph ist 

Pseudo graphy 
Pseudo graph 

Sceno graphy 
Sceno graph ic 
4* 



Sceno graph ic al 

Seleno graphy 
Seleno graph er 
Seleno graph ic 
Seleno graph ic al 
Seleno graph ist 

Stegano graphy 
Stegano graph ist 

Steno graphy 
Steno graph er 
Steno graph ic 
Steno graph ic al 
Steno graph ist 

Tele graph 
Tele graph ic 
Tele graph ic al 

Topo graphy 
Topo graph er 
Topo graph ic 
Topo graph ic al 
Topo graph ic al ly 
Topo graph ist 

Typo graphy 
Typo graph er 
Typo graph ic 
Typo graph ic al 
Typo graph ic al ly 

Xylo graphy 
Xylo graph er 
Xylo graph ic 

Zoo graphy 
Zoo graph er 
Zoo graph ic al 
Zoo graph ist 



42 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



Example 7. 

Logic, (from loyog, Gr.J reason, a word, a speech, a dis- 
course, science, or knowledge ; or (from logica, L-) the art of 
reasoning, or the right use of reason ; the laws of thought, or 



of argument. 






Logtc 


Ana logy 


Areto logy 


Log^c ai 


Ana loga^ 




Log^c al \j 


Ana logic al 


Astheno logy 


Log^c ian 


Ana logic al ly 




Log arithm 


Ana logic al ness 


Astro logy 


Log arithm ic 


Ana log ism 


Astro logic 


Log arithm ic al 


Ana log ize 


Astro logic al 


Log arithm etic 


Ana log iz ed 


Astro logic al ly 


Log arithm etic al 


Ana log iz ing 


Astro log er 


Log arithm etic al ly 


' Ana logue 


Astro logi an 


Logi Stic 


Ana log ous 


Astro log ize 


Logi Stic al 


Ana log ous ly 


Astro log iz ed 


Logo graphy 


Ana logon 


Astro log iz ing 


Logo griph 


Un ana logic al 


Astro theo logy 


Logo machy 






Logo mach ist 


Angio logy 


Batto logy 


Logo meter 




Batto log ist 


Logo metr ic 


Antho logy 


Batto log ize 


Logo metr ic al 


Antho logic al 


Batto log iz ed 


Logo thete 




Batto log iz ing 


Logo type 


Anti logy 






Anti log arithm 


Botano logy 


Aero logy 




Botano log ist 


Aero log ist 


Apology 




Aero logic al 


Apo log etic 


Cata logue 




Apo log etic al 


Cata logu ed 


Ambi logy 


Apo log etic al ly 


Cata logu ing 




Apo log etics 


Cata log ize 


Amphi logy 


Apo log ist 


Cata log iz ed 


Amphi bio logy 


Apo log ize 


Cata log iz ing 


Amphi bio logic al 


. Apo log iz ed 






Apo log iz ing 


Chiro logy 


Amphi bo logy 


Apo log iz er 


Chiro log ist 


Amphi bo logic al 


Apo logue 





Amphi bo logic al ly Apo logu er 



Chrono logy 





ETYMOLOGT. 


4 


Chrono log er 


Doxo log ize 


Etymo log ist 


Chrono logic 


Doxo log iz ed 


Etymo log ize 


Chrono logic al 


Doxo log iz ing 


Etymo log iz ed 


Chrono log ist 




Etymo log iz ing 


Chrono logic al ly 


Ec logue 


Eucho logy 


Concho logy 


Elogy 




Concho log ist 


E log ist 


Eu logy 


Concho logic al 


E logi um 


Eu logi um 




Eloge 


Eu logic 


Cranio logy 




Eu logic al 


Cranio log ist 


Entero logy 


Eu logic al ly 


Cranio logic al 




Eu log ist 




Entomo logy 


Eu log ist ic 


Crypto logy 


Entomo logic al 


Eu log ist ic al 




Entomo log ist 


Eu log ist ic al ly 


Dactylo logy 




Eu log ize 




Epi logue 


Eu log iz ed 


Deca logue 


Epi log ize 


Eu log iz ing 


Deca log ist 


Epi log iz ed 




. 


Epi log iz ing 


Genea logy 


Demono logy 


Epi log ism 


Genea log ist 


Demono log ist 


Epi log ist ic 


Genea logic al 




Epi logic al 


Genea logic al ly 


Dendro logy 






Dendro log ist 


Ethno logy 
Ethno log ist 


Genethlia logy 


Dia log ize 


Ethno logic 


Geo logy 


Dia log iz ed 


Ethno logic al 


Geo log ist 


Dia log iz ing 




Geo log er 


Dia log ism 


Etho logy 


Geo logi an 


Dia log ist 


Etho log ist 


Geo logic al 


Dia log ist ic 


Etho logic al 


Geo logic al ly 


Dia log ist ic al 




Geo log ize 


Dia log ist ic al ly 


Etio logy 


Geo log iz ed 


Dia logue 




Geo log iz ing 


Dia logu ed 


Etymo logy 




Dia loo-u ino; 


Etymo logic 


Gnomo logy 


Dia logue-writer 


Etymo logic al 


Gnomo logic 




Etymo logic al ly 


Gnomo logic al 


Doxo logy 


Etymo logic on 




Doxo logic al 


Etymo log er 


Helmintho logy 



44 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



Hiero logy 
Hiero log ist 

Historio logy 

Homo logy 
Homo log ous 



Meteoro logic al 



Minera logy 
Minera log ist 
Minera logic 
Minera logic al 
JMinera logic al ly 

Mono logue 



Horo logy 

Horo loge Mono log ist 

Horo logic al 

Horo logio graphy Myo logy 

Horo logio graph er Myo logic al 

Horo logio graph ic 

Myco logy 
Hydro logy Myco logic 

Hydro log ist Myco logic al 



tlymno logy 

Ichthyo logy 
Ichthyo log ist 
Ichthyo logic al 

II logic al 
II logic al ly 
II logic al ness 

Maxjro logy 

Manto logy 

Martyro logy 
Martyro log ist 
Martyro logic al 
Martyro loge 

Meno logy 

Meteoro logy 
Meteoro log ist 
Meteoro logic 



Mytho logy 
Mytho log ist 
Mytho log er 
Mytho logic 
Mytho logic al 
Mytho logic al ly 
Mytho log ize 
Mytho log iz ed 
Mytho log iz ing 
Mytho log (g)raph er 
Mytho logue 

Necro logy 
Necro log ist 
Necro logic 
Necro logic al 

Neo logy 
Neo logi an 
Neo logi an ism 
Neo logic 
Neo logic al 
Neo log ism 
Neo log ist 



Neo log ist ic 
Neo log ist ic al 
Neo log ize 
Neo log iz ed 
Neo log iz ing 
Neo log iz ation 

Neuro logy 
Neuro log ist 
Neuro logic al 

Noso logy 
Noso log ist 
Noso logic al 

Onto logy 
Onto log ist 
Onto logic 
Onto logic al 
Onto logic al ly 

Ornitho logy 
Ornitho log ist 
Ornitho logic 
Ornitho logic al 
Ornithichno logy 

Osteo logy 
Osteo log ist 
Osteo log er 
Osteo logic 
Osteo logic al 
Osteo logic al ly 

Pantheo logy 
Pantheo log ist 

Panto logy 
Panto log ist 
Panto logic al 

Paradoxo logy 





ET-mOLOGT. 




Para logy 


Physio logy 


Syl log iz er 


Para log ism 


Physio log ist 


Syl log iz ation 


Para log ize 


Physio log er 




Para log iz ed 


Physio logic 


Tauto logy 


Para log iz ing 


Physio logic al 


Tauto log ist 




Physio logic al ly 


Tauto log ous 


Patho logy 




Tauto logic 


Patho log ist 


Phyto logy 


Tauto logic al 


Patho log^c 


Phyto log ist 


Tauto logic al ly 


Patho logic al 


Phyto logic al 


Tauto log ize 
Tauto log iz ed 


Petro logy 


Pneumato logy 
Pneumato log ist 


Tauto log iz ing 


Pharmaco logy 


Pneumato logic al 


Techno logy 


Pharmaco log ist 


Poly logy 


Techno logic al 


Philo logy 




Theo logy 


Philo log ist 


Pro logue 


Theo log ist 


Philo log er 


Pro log ize 


Theo log er 


Philo logic 


Pro log iz ed 


Theo logi an 


Philo logic al 


Pro log iz ing 


Theo logic 


Philo logic ai ly 


Pro log iz er 


Theo logic al 


Philo log ize 


Pro syl log ism 


Theo logic al ly 


Philo log iz ed 




Theo log ics 


Philo log iz ing 


Pseudo logy 


Theo logue 




Pseudo log ist 


Theo log aster 


Photo logy 




Theo log ize 


Photo logi7 al 


Psycho logy 


Theo log iz ed 




Psycho log ist 


Theo log iz ing 


Phraseo logy 


Psycho logic 




Phraseo log ist 


Psycho logic al 


A theo logy 


Phraseo logic 


Psycho logic al ly 


A theo logi an 


Phraseo logic al 








Somato logy 


Typo logy 


Phreno logy 






Phreno log ist 


Syl log ism 


Zoo logy 


Phreno log er 


Syl log ist ic 


Zoo log ist 


Phreno logic 


Syl log ist ic al 


Zoo log er 


Phreno logic al 


Syl log ist ic al ly 


Zoo logic al 


Phreno logic al ly 


Syl log ize 
Syl log iz ed 


Zoo logic al ly 


Physico theo logy 


Syl log iz ing 





45 



46 THE BLACK-BOAED. 



EXERCISES FOR THE BLACK-BOARD. 

The following words are designed as exercises in. pronun- 
ciation^ articulation^ accentuation, spelling, defining, and 
derivation. 

One method of using them. 

Let a certain number of the words be assigned beforehand, 
as a lesson, for the scholars to study out in their dictionaries ; 
in which, if they understand the use, they will find all the 
necessary information. At the time appointed for the exer- 
cise, let the teacher put out the words in whatever order he 
pleases. Let him pronounce each word correctly, with a dis- 
tinct articulation, and a proper accent. Li like manner, let 
all the scholars pronounce, at once, the word after him, and 
then write it on the hlack-hoard, or on their slates, and put the 
mark of accent in its proper place. After all the words in 
the lesson have been put out, and written down, as above 
directed, let each scholar, in turn, pronounce, articulate, and 
accentuate the words again; and, at the same time, spell 
his particular word, as he has written it down, and give its 
definition. In spelling, each syllable should be pronounced 
hy itself; and in defining, the definitions should be pertinent 
and complete. 

Another method of using them. 

As words are either primitive or derivative, simple or com- 
pound, each word should be examined with regard to each of 
these particulars. Let a cei-tain number of the words, as be- 
fore directed, be assigned for a lesson ; and let each scholar 
be required to consult his dictionary for information, as to the 
etymology of the words. At the time appointed for the exer- 
cise, let the teacher put out the words in whatever order he 
pleases ; and let each scholar write them down on the black- 
hoard. Then let each word be examined with regard to its 
etymon or root, and also with regard to its formation. If it 
be a primitive word, what words are derived from it ? and 
how are ihay formed'^ Let the whole family of words, or 
as many as can be recollected, with their prefixes and affixes, 
be pointed out, and written on the hlack-hoard. If it be a 
derivative word, what is its etymon or root, from which it is 



TABLE OP WORDS. 



47 



derived^ and how is it formed'^ Let the whole family of 
words derived from the same root, with their prefixes and 
affixes, be pointed out, and written on the Uachhoard. If 
it be a simple word, pursue the same course as with a primi- 
tive word. If it be a compound word, let its component parts 
be pointed out, &c. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 



Arabic. 



Ar. or\ 

Arab, j 

D. Dutch. 

Dan. Danish. 

Fr. French. 

Gr. Greek. 

Heb. Hebrew. 



Icel. Icelandic. 

It. Italian. 

L. Latin. 

Sax. Saxon. 

Sp. Spanish. 

Teu. Teutonic. 

W. Welsh. 



Note. — A large proportion of the following words are de- 
rived from the Latin, Greek, and French languages. It is 
not always easy to determine whether a word is derived from 
the Latin, Greek, or French. The etjonon or root is so nearly 
the same, that it may as well be derived from the one, as from 
either of the others. On this point, etymologists themselves 
frequently differ. 

TABLE OP WORDS. 



Ahdicate, L. 
^Muce, L. 
-4^jure, L. 
Abnegate^ L. 
Abrogate, L. 
AbscmA, L. 
Abs tract, L. 
Academy, L. 
Accidence, L. 
Ac claim, L. 
Accoutre, Fr. 
Accubsition, L. 
Acerhiti/, L. 
Acid ity, L. 
Acoustics, Gr. 
Acrostic, Gr. 



Acumen, L. 
Adamant, L. 
-4c?duce, L. 
-4c? here, L. 
^c^join, Fr. 
^c? judge, Fr. 
Adjunct, L. 
Adjure, L. 
Ad minister, L. 
Ad monish, L. 
Ad move, L. 
Adwocate, L. 
Ag glomerate, L. 
Aggrandize, Fr. 
Aggregate, L. 
AgrsLrian, L. 



Agri culture, L. 
A la mode, Fr. 
^fchymy, Ar. 
^^cohol, Ar. 
Alcoran, Ar. 
^Zcove, Sp. 
Algebra, Ar. 
^7/egory, Gr. 
L. 

L. 

Alpha bet, Gr. 
Amalgam ate, Fr. 
A-manu-ensis, L. 
Amatory, L. 
Ambi-dextr-ous, L 
Ambi-gu-ity, L. 



^Zligate. 
AlXiieraiion 



48 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



Ambulatio?i, L. 
A-vnemty, L. 
Amnesty, Gr. 
AmoroM5, L. 
Amphi-U-ous, L. 
AmpJii theatre, Gr. 
Amputate, L. 
Analogy, Gr. 
Analysis, Gr. 
^warchy, Gr. 
^watomy, Gr. 
Ancestry, L. 
Anglicism. 
Anhelose, L. 
Annihilate, L. 
^7^odyne, Gr. 
Anomali/, Gr. 
^nonymow5, Gr. 
-4w^e date, L. 
-4?z^e penult, L. 
Anthology, Gr. 
^7^^^dote, Gr. 
-4?^#^patlly, Gr. 
Aniiphrasis, Gr. 
^Tz^ipodes, Gr. 
Ami thesis, Gr. 
Anii type, Gr. 
Aphorism, Gr. 
^joocrypha, Gr. 
^joostrophe, Gr. 
^joprecia^^, L. 
Ap proximate, L. 
Aquatic, L. 
Aqueous, L. 
Arable, L. 
u4rcA<sology, Gr. 
Arche type, L. 
-4rcAitect, L. 
Archives, L. 
Arid zVy, L. 
-4m;ocracy, Gr. 
Arithmetic, Gr. 



Armi potent, L. 
-4rmzstice, L. 
Arm ory, L. 
Arrogate, L. 
Arsenal, It. 
Ascetic, Gr. 
Asperse, L. 
Assiduity, L. 
^ssimila^c, L. 
^5^rography, Gr. 
Astrology, Gr. 
^^^ronomy, Gr. 
A theism, Gr. 
Athletic, Gr. 
At tinge, L. 
Audible, L. 
^?incular, L. 
^ Myograph, Gr. 
-4i<^omaton, Gr. 
Avoir-du-pois, Fr. 
Axiom, Gr. 

Bacchanal, L. 
Baili^, Fr. 
Baleful, Fr. 
Ballad, It. 
BalustracZc, Fr. 
Bank rupt, Fr. 
Barbarism, L. 
Baro meter, Gr. 
Barricac?c, Fr. 
Barrister. 
Basilisk, Gr. 
Beati^c, L. 
Belles lettres, Fr. 
Belli gerent, L. 
Bene diction, L. 
Bene faction, L. 
Be scatter. 
Be seem, Icel. 
Be speak. 
Be stow ment, Sax, 



Bi angular, L. 
BibaciOM5, L. 
^iJ^iogi'apher, Gr. 
Bibliot\icc2d, Gr. 
^?'cornous, L. 
Bi corporal, L. 
Bigamy, L. 
Bin ocular, L. 
biography, Gr. 
j&i'ped, L. 
Bi quadr«^c, L. 
Bisect, L. 
Bis sextile, L. 
-S^cfspheme, Gr. 
Bombast, Teut. 
Boreas, L. 
Botany, Gr. 
Brachial, L. 
BreviVy, L. 
Bribery, Fr. 
BronchiaZ, L. 
'Brumal, L. 
Brunette, Fr. 
Brutal ize, L. 
Bucolic, L. 
Buflfoon ery, Fr. 
Bulb ous, L. 
Bull finch. 
^iiZwark, D. 
Buoy ant, Fr. 
Bureau, Fr. 
Burgeois, Fr. 
Burglar y. 
Burlesque, Fr. 
Buskin, D. 
Butler, Fr. 
Buxom. 

Cadaveroiw, L. 
Calcareoi^s, L. 
Calciwc, Fr. 
Oale faction, L. 



TABLE OF WORDS. 



49 



Calend «r, L. 
Caliber, Fr. 
Calonc, L. 
Calumniate, L. 
Canine, L. 
Cannibal. 
Cannon ade, Fr. 
Canon ize, Fr. 
Canopy, Gr. 
Capitulate, L. 
Caricature, It. 
Garni-vor-ous, L. 
Castigate, L. 
Catacombs, Gr. 
Catecll^^e, Gr. 
Category, Gr. 
Cathartze, Gr. 
Catholic on, Gr. 
Caustzc, Gr. 
Celibacy, L. 
Cemetery, Gr. 
Cewotaph, Gr. 
Centenary, L. 
Oew^ennial, L. 
(7e?2^nfugal, L. 
Oe?z^npetal, L. 
Centurion, L. 
Chandelier, Fr. 
Chaotic, Gr. 
Chicane^-y, Fr. 
Chimera, L. 
CJiirogY2i^\\j, Gr. 
CVizVurgeon, Gr. 
Chivalry, Fr. 
Choler ic, L. 
C^rowography, Gr. 
Chromatic, Gr. 
Chronic, Gr. 
Chronology, Gr. 
Churl ish. 
Chymist ry, Gr. 
Circle, L. 



Circum ambulate, L. Gonimgent, L. 
Gircum-fer-ence, L 
Gircum scribe, L. 
Gircumvolye, L. 
Clandesti?2e, L. 
Clarion, Fr. 



Clerical, Fr. 
Climax, Gr. 
Cloister, Fr. 
Coalesce, L. 
CodiciY, L. 
Go equal, L. 
Go eternal, L. 
Coeval, L. 
Go exist, L. 
CognitiOT?, L. 
Cogniza?ice, Fr. 
Go habit, L. 
Gol lapse, L. 
Co/ late, L. 
Gol league, L, 
Gol locate, L. 
CoHoquia?, L. 
ColoriJ^c, L. 
Gom mingle. 
Commute, L. 
Compend, L. 
Complicate, L. 
Component, L. 
Composite, L. 
Gom press, L. 
Gon catenate, L. 
Co?icoct, L. 
Concrete, L. 
Co?icussio?i, L. 
Confabulate, L. 
Confiscate, L. 
Gon fluent, L. 
Gon glomerate, L. 
Gon gratula^e, L. 
Conjugate, L. 
Contagioi<5, L. 



Go7itravene, L. 
Contusion, L. 
Gonvocate, L. 
Convulse, L. 
Go operate, L. 
Go ordinate, L. 
Copulative, L. 
Corinth lan. 
Corona/, L. 
Corpule?!^, L. 
Got relative, L. 
Corroborate, L. 
Cosmetic, Gr. 
Cosmography, Gr. 
Cosmopolitan, Gr. 
Gounter act, L. 
Gounter march, Fr, 
Gounter mine, Fr. 
Cranium, L. 
Crayon, Fr. 
Credulity, L. 
Crystal, Gr. 
Culinary, L. 
Culminate, L. 
CulpaS/e, L. 
Cumber some. 
Cup board. 
Cursory, L. 
CutaneoMS, L. 
Cyc/opsedia, Gr. 
Cylinder, Gr. 

Dactyl ic, L. 
Debonair, Fr. 
Decagon, Gr. 
Z^ecalogue, Gr. 
Decsk-^iiate, L. 
DecQnmal, L. 
Decima/, L. 
De cipher, Fr. 



50 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



Z^ecoct, L. 
Dediicihle, L. 
JDeductive, L. 
jDefsdcate, L. 
J)e^ectio7i, L. 
Z^efunct, L. 
J)eism, L. 
Delectable, L. 
X)eleterioi«5, L. 
Delinqueyit, L. 
J)elus^Ve, L. 
DemoQ,v2hCy, Gr. 
Denigrate, L. 
Denta/, L. 
J^enude, L. 
Z^e popul<2^(9, L. 
De-precate, L. 
i^epreda^e, L. 
De-re-\iction, L. 
Derision, L. 
Derogate, L. 
Z>e scribe, L. 
Despot 25m, Gr. 
Z>eterge7i^, L. 
Z)eters2Ve, L. 
Z^e throne, L. 
Z^etrunca^e, L. 
Z>evasta^e, L. 
De-vi-ous, L. 
Z)e vote, L. 
Dexterotfs, L. 
Diabolic al, L. 
Diagonal, Gr. 
Z>mgram, Gr. 
Z)^alect, Gr. 
Z)m meter, Gr. 
Diapsison, Gr. 
Diffusive, L. 
Z)2 lacera^^, L. 
Z)2' lapidate, L. 
Dilsitory, L. 
Z)j lemma, Gr. 



Z^ijo^thong, Gr. 
Dis able. 
Dis comfit, Fr. 
Discreet, L. 
Dis gorge, Fr. 
Disjunctive, L. 
Dis locate, L. 
Z^is iparity, L. 
Dis repute, L. 
Dis syllable, Gr. 
Dis tention, L. 
DiurnaZ, L. 
Z^ivergew^, L. 
Docik'^y, L. 
Doctrine, L. 
Dogmatzm, L. 
Doleful, L. 
Dominate, L. 
Dormitory, L. 
Z^oxology, Gr. 
Drama, Gr. 
Druid. 
Dryad, L. 
Duodecimo, L. 
DuTplicate, L. 
Dui^licity, L. 
Dynasty, Gr. 

Z^ccentric, L. 
Z'cclesiast2<7, L. 
Z^clect^c, Gr. 
Z^clogue, Gr. 
Edac%, L. 
Edi&Ze, L. 
Effervesce, L. 
Effrontery, L. 
Effusion, L. 
Egot^5m, L. 
Z^jacuWe, L. 
ZJlabor^^e, L. 
Elapse, L. 
Electric%, Gr. 



Elegy, Gr. 
Elision, L. 
ZJHipsis, Gr. 
Elocution, L. 
Elysium, L. 
Em balm, Fr. 
Embezzle, Fr. 
ZJmblem, Gr. 
Emetzc, Gr. 
ZT^iphasis, Gr. 
Empirzc, Gr. 
Z^porium, Gr. 
Empyrean, Gr. 
Z^comium, Gr. 
En cyc^opsedia, Gr. 
En franchise, Fr. 
En grave, D. 
Enigma, Gr. 
ZJnuncia^e, L. 
Epidemic, Gr. 
^2logue, Gr. 
^^taph, Gr. 
^ztome, Gr. 
Equa&?e, L. 
Equi lateraZi, L. 
Equinox, L. 
Erratic, L. 
Erudi'^e, L. 
ZVysipelas, Gr. 
Esculent, L. 
Escutcheon, Fr. 
Ethics, Gr. 
Etiquette, Fr. 
Etymology, Gr. 
Etymon, Gr. 
Z'wcharist, Gr. 
Eulogy, Gr. 
Z^wphony, Gr. 
Evangek'c, Gr. 
Ex asperate, L. 
Ex cogitate, L. 
Excvdpate, L. 



TABLE OF WORDS. 



51 



^a^odus, Gr. 
Exonerate, L. 
Exorcism, Gr. 
Exordium, L. 
JEx^QGiovate, L. 
Ex^eHite, L. 
Ex^lo^ive, L. 
Ex^nldve, L. 
.Exioxii, L. 
^a^tempore, L. 
Extra judicial, L. 
Extra ordinary, L. 
Extrinsic, L, 
Exuvige, L. 

FabnV, L. 
Fabul<?w5, L. 
Facetiows, Fr. 
FacikYy, L. 
Factory, L. 
FallacioM5, L. 
FalliWe, L. 
Fanat2c, L. 
Fantast^c, Gr. 
Farce, Fr. 
Farinaceous, L. 
Farraginous, L. 
Fastidiow.9, L. 
Feasii/e, Fr. 
FecundzYy, L. 
Felici to?/s, L. 
Feline, L. 
Felon y, Fr. 
FemoraZ, L. 
Ferocity, L. 
Ferreoz^s, L. 
FeudaZ, L. 
Filial, L. 
Filtros^e, L. 
Finance, Fr. 
Finesse, Fr. 
Fisc al L. 



Flaccid, L. 
Flagitiows, L. 
Flambeau, Fr. 
Flora/, L. 
Foliage, -L. 
Folio, L. 
Fore cast, Dan. 
Eore close, L. 
Forgery, Fr. 
Fortuito^«s, L. 
Eour score, Icel. 
FracU'o??, L. 
Fract2«re, L. 
Frangible, L. 
Fraternal, L. 
Fratric^c?e, L. 
Fricassee, Fr. 
Friction, L. 
Frigid, L. 
Frondi-fer-ous, L. 
Fructij^, L. 
Frugi-fer-ous, L. 
Frxxiiion, L. 
Fugac^7y, L. 
Fulminate, L. 
Fumigate, L. 
FurUVe, L. 
FusiSZe, L. 
Futile, L. 

Galaxy, Gr. 
Gamut, Sp. 
Gangrene, Fr. 
Garrulous, L. 
Gastriloqyjij, Gr. 
Gelid, L. 
G•ermino^^s, L. 
Genealogy, Gr. 
Genesis, Gr. 
Genu ficciion, L. 
G^eography, Gr. 
G'eology, Gr. 



GeomQirj, Gr. 
Georgic, Gr. 
Germinate, L. 
Gibbows, L. 
Glaciate, L. 
Glandi-fer-ous, L. 
Glomerate, L. 
Gnomon, Gr. 
Gormandz;2e, Fr. 
Graduate, L. 
Grammar, Gr. 
Granary, L. 
Grani-vor-ous, L. 
Granulows, Fr. 
Graph^c, Gr. 
Gratula^e, L. 
Graze, Sax. 
Gregariows, L. 
Grimace, Fr. 
Grotesque, Fr. 
Gustat^o?^, L. 
Gutter al, L. 
Gymnastzc, Gr. 
Gyves, W. 

Halcyon, L. 
Hallelujah, Heb. 
Hammock, Sp. 
Harangue, Fr. ' 
Harlequin, Fr. 
Harmony, Gr. 
Harp-si-chord, Fr. 
Haut-hoy, Fr. 
Heathen ism. 
Hebdomadal, L. 
Hecatomb, Gr. 
Hemi sphere, Gr. 
Hemistic, Gr. 
Heptagon, Gr. 
Heptarchy, Gr. 
Herald ry, Fr. 
Heresy, Gr. 



52 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



Hermit age, Fr. 
HeteroAoiL, Gr. 
IfeterogeneouSf Gr. 
Hexagon, Gr. 
Hexa meter, Gr. 
Hex angular, G.&L. 
Hiatus, L. 
Hibernal, L. 
-hierarchy, Gr. 
Z^^eroglyph^V, Gr. 
Hilarity, L. 
^^jopopotaraus, Gr. 
-fii'^^or /ographer, Gr. 
History, Gr. 
Hodiernal, L. 
Homic^c?e, L. 
Homogeneous, L. 
Hortator?/, L. 
Horti culture, L. 
HostikVy, L. 
Humid ity, L. 
Hydra, L. 
Hydraulics, Gr. 
i^c^rocephalus, Gr. 
Hydi-ogYsc^hj, Gr. 
Hydro meter, Gr. 
^yc^ro phobia, Gr. 
Hydrostatic, Gr. 
HyperholQ, Gr. 
Hy2:)erhorean, L. 
Hyper critic a?, Gr. 
Hypocrite, Gr. 
^^ostasis, Gr. 
^jt?o thesis, Gr. 
Hysterics, Gr. 

IgnzVe, L. 
// legal, L. 
//licit, L. 
// logic al, L. 
Hluaive, L. 
.^^bibe, L. 



Im macul«^e, L. 
/mmerse, L. 
Im mure, L. 
Im -peccable, L. 
Im-per-vi-ous, L. 
. Incsivcerate, L. 
i^icarna^e, L. 
J?zcognito, L. 
/?2 combust^6/e, L. 
In com press z6Ze, L 
In congTUOUs, L. 
/n corrupt ible, L. 
incubate, L. 
i?2 cwmbent, L. 
iw decorows, L. 
i?2dent ure, L. 
Indigenc>M5, L. 
In^wvate, L. 
-^ ex press ible, L. 
J?7^ extricaJ/e, L. 
In falli&/e, L. 
Iiidinticide, L. 
In flame, L. 
i?i flexzJ/e, L. 
In {rangible, L. 
/n germinate, L. 
Inhume, L. 
Jw lapidate, L. 
i?2 nocuow5, L. 
Iti noxious, L. 
J^i scribe, L. 
In stable, L. 
In tract able, L. 
Integra/, L. 
7?2^erdict, L. 
Interieve, L. 
-Sz^er lapse, L. 
interregnum, L. 
Inter scribe, L. 
i?itolercm^, L. 
Intro duce, L. 
iwvectzz^e, L. 



Invincible, L, 
Irasc^5/e, L. 
Ireful, L. 
Ironic al, Gr. 
ir re {ragable, L. 
i^riga^e, L. 
Isolates?, Fr. 
Isosceles, Gr. 
Isthmus, Gr. 
. Iterate, L. 
Itinera?z^, L. 

Jehovah, Heb. 
Jejune, L. 
Jocular, L. 
Jovial, L. 
Jubilee, Fr. 
Judsiism. 
Judge, Fr. 
Jugular, L. 
Juris diction, L. 
Juris prude?iee, L. 
Juxta position, L. 

Kennel, Fr. 
Ker chief, Fr. 
Kidnap per. 
KilderZ;m, D. 
King dom. 
Knap sack, Ger. 
Knavery. 
Knight hood. 
Knowledge. 
Knuckle. 

LabiaZ, L. 
Labor, L. 
Labyrinth, L. 
Lacerate, L. 
Lachryraa/, L. 
Lacome, L. 
LacteoM5, L. 



TABLE OF WORDS. 



53 



Lambie?it, L. 
Lamina, L. 
Lampoon, Fr. 
Lania^e, L. 
Lapidate, L. 
Larynx, Gr. 
Lassite«£i?c, L. 
Lateral, L. 
Laureate, L, 
Legend ary^ L. 
Legislature, L. 
Legitima^i?, L. 
Lenie7?i, L. 
Leon^?^e, L. 
Lepros?/, L. 
Lethixvgy, Gr. 
Xe:rzccigrapher, Gr. 
Lexicon, Gr. 
Jjihatton, L. 
Libell 0W5, L. 
Libidinozw, L. 
Licentious, L. 
Ligament, L. 
Ligneoz<5, L. 
Lineage, L. 
Linear, L. 
Lique/y, L. 
Lithogrn^hj, Gr. 
Litigioz^s, L. 
Local ity, L. 
Xoco motj"o?2, L. 
Xo^arithms, Gr. 
Logic al ly, L. 
Xoyomacliy, Gr. 
Long ez^i ty, L. 
Loquac%, L. 
Lotzo?i, L. 
Lubricate, L. 
Lunacy, L. 
'hviU2ition, L. 
Lymphatzc, L. 
Lyric al, L. 



Macerate, L. 
Maculate, L. 
Madrigal. 
Magnet ism, L. 
Male dioXioji, L. 
iitfa/e fact20?^, L. 
Malign ity, Fr. 
Manoeuvre, Fr. 
Mariu facti^re, L. 
Ifanumit, L. 
Manu script, L. 
Martyr dom, Gr. 
Masquerac^e, Fr. 
Massacre, Fr. 
Mathematics, Gr. 
MatriczWe, L. 
Matriculat^o/^, L. 
Mausoleum, L. 
Maxillary, L. 
Mechanzc, L. 
Melli-fer-ous, L. 
Melli-jiu-ent, L, 
if/efody, Gr. 
MendaczVy, L. 
Mendicaw^, L. 
Menial. 
Mercenary, L. 
Mersiow, L. 
Metal lie, L. 
Jie^aplior, Gr. 
Meta phrase, Gr. 
Meta physics, Gr. 
Meteorology, Gr. 
ilife^ropolis, L. 
Michael 7Jias. 
Micro scope, Gr. 
Migratio/i, L. 
JfzYZennium, L. 
Jii'?zeralogy,L. & Gr. 
J/^'santhrope, Gr. 
Miscellany, L. 
Jfiscreant, Fr. 



ISlissive, L. 
Mitigate, L. 
Mobility, L. 
Moiety, Fr. 
Molli/y, L. 
J/o7?.archy, Gr. 
JioTiastery, L. 
Mono chord, Gr. 
Monodij, Gr. 
i|t/b?zologue, Gr. 
Mono syllable, Gr. 
Monotony, Gr. 
Muliebr%, L. 
Multi-fari-ous, L. 
Multi form, L. 
Mundane, L. 
Musicza?z, Gr. 
MutaS^e, L. 
Mutilai^e, L. 
Mutiny, Fr. 
Myrmidon, Gr. 
Mystery, Gr. 
Mythology, Gr. 

Naiad, Gr. 
Narcotzc, Gr. 
Narrate, L. 
Nasal, L. 
Natal, L. 
Nauseate, L. 
Nautic al, L. 
Nebulozw, L. 
iVecromancy, Gr. 
Nectar, L. 
Ne-fari-ous, L. 
Negocia^e, Fr. 
Nidi-ficatz(??z, L. 
Nigresce?z^, L. 
iVbcturnal, L. 
Nomen(^^ture, L. 
Bon entity, L. 
iVb^zpareil; Fr. 



54: 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



Novel ty^ L. 
Novice, L. 
Noxioi*5, L. 
Nuhi-fer-ous, L. 
Nuci-fer-ouSy L. 
Nucleus, L. 
Nud^Vy, L. 
Nugatory, L. 
Nulli/y, L. 
Null%, L. 
NuptiaZ, L. 
NursZmy. 
Nutrit^^;e, L. 
Njmph, L. 

05 duracy, L. 
Obelisk, L. 
Obes^^y, L. 
Oblate, L. 
OblivioTZ, L. 
05 long, L. 
Obloquy, L. 
05 noxioM5, L. 
Obscen%, L. 
05sequiow5, L. 
Obsolete, L. 
Obstinacy, L. 
Ob streperow5, L. 
05trude, L. 
05tuse, L. 
Occide?i^, L. 
Occlude, L. 
Octagon aly Gr. 
Oct angular, L. 
Octave, L. 
Octavo, L. 
Octennial, L. 
Ocular, L. 
Odori-fer-ous, L. 
0/factory, Fr. 
Oligsirchy, Gr. 
Ominows, L. 



Ofyim potent, L. 
Ommscient, L. 
Omni-vor-ous, L. 
Onerozis, L. 
Ontology, Gr. 
Opaque, Fr. 
Oppugn, L. 
Optic al, Gr. 
Optioji, L. 
Oracle, L. 
Orient al, L. 
Ornate, L. 
Orthoepy, Gr. 
Or^Aography, Gr. 
Oscila^e, L. 
Ossi^, L. 
Osteology, Gr. 
Ovarious, L. 
Ovi form, L. 
Oxy-gen, Gr. 

Pagan ^.5W^. 
Palmi-fer-ous, L. 
Palm «s^r-y, L. 
Panegyric, Gr. 
Pa?ioply, Gr. 
Pa?ztlieon, Gr. 
Pa?2tomime, Gr. 
Papa cy, L. 
Paradigm, Gr. 
Paradox, Gr. 
Paragraph, Gr. 
Pai^a phrase, Gr. 
ParietoZ, L. 
Parody, Gr. 
ParriciWe, L. 
Patriarch, L. 
Patrician, L. 
Patrimony, L. 
Taucity, L. 
Pecca5/e, L. 
Pectoral, L. 



Pec?agogue, Gr. 
Pedant, Fr. 
Pedes ta/, L. 
Pedigree. 
Pentagon, Gr. 
Pen ultimate, L. 
Penury, L. 
Per ambulate, L. 
Perennial, L. 
Perfidy, L. 
Pen'phery, Gr. 
Peri phrase, Gr. 
Per orat^o?^, L. 
PerquiszYe, L. 
Per-vi-ous, L. 
Pharmacy, Gr. 
Philippzc, L. 
Philology, Gr. 
Phle-ho-tomy, Gr. 
Phthiszc, Gr. 
Physiognomy, Gr. 
Picturesque, Fr. 
Pilaster, Fr. 
Piscatory, L. 
Plagiarism, L. 
Plast'/c, Gr. 
Plebe^a?^, L. 
Plenary, L. 
Polemzc, L. 
Polyglot, Gr. 
Polygon, Gr. 
Poly theism, Gr. 
Ponder ous, L. 
Pontijf, L. 
Po5^ script, L. 
Postulate, L. 
Pragmatic, Gr. 
Trecocity, L. 
Prelude, L. 
Presbyter, Gr. 
Prevaricate, L. 
Primage, L. 



TABLE OF WORDS. 



55 



Pro cumberti, L. 
Prophesy, Gr. 
i^roselyte, Gr. 
Proto type, Gr. 
Pugnac^c>^is, L. 

Quadr angular, L. 
Quadra^i^, L. 
Quadrenmal, L. 
^wacfruple, L. 
Quarto, L. 
Queruloz^s, L. 
Quiesce??^, L. 
Quinqu angular, L, 
Qui7iqicenmal, L. 
Quint essence, L. 
^wm^uple, L. 

Radical, L. 
Radius, L. 
Raillery, Fr. 
RapaciYy, L. 
i?a5pberry. 
Ratio, L. 
Pe animate, L. 
Pe cantat^(9^, L. 
Pe capitulatzoTZ, L. 
i?eceptz*ye, L. 
jKeciproca^e, L. 
Pecisioji, L. 
i?eclude, L. 
i?ecluse, L. 
Pecogmze, L. 
Pe coil, Fr. 
Pe condite, L. 
Pecreant, Fr. 
Pe criminate, L. 
Pect angular, L. 
Pecti linear, L. 
Pe Q,\xmhent, L. 
Pe fraction, L. 
Pe fra,ngible, L. 



llegicide, L. 
Regiment, Fr. 
Regular ity, L. 
Pe im press io7i, L. 
Pe iterate, L. 
i?e lapse, L. 
Pe lucent, L. 
Pe migrate, L. 
Reminisce^^ce, L. 
i?emonstra^e, L. 
i?emunera^e, L. 
i?e nascent, L. 
Penovate, L. 
Repartee, Fr. 
i?6'plicat*o?i, L. 
jRepository, L. 
Reprieve, Fr. 
i?eprisal, Fr. 
Peprohate, L. 
jKepudia^e, L. 
Pe pulse, L. 
i?equiem, L. 
i?escind, L. 
Pe scribe, L. 
Pe spire, L. 
Pe strict, L. 
Pe stringent, L. 
Resuscitate, L. 
Petro grade, L. 
PetrosTpect, L. 
Phapsody, Gr. 
Rhetor^e, Gr, 
Rheum, Gr. 
RhomJb Old, Gr. 
RisiJ^e, L. 
Romantic, L. 
Roquelaure, Fr. 
Rostrum, L. 
Rotund iti/, L. 
Ruej%^. 
Ruminate, L. 



Rustic ate, L. 
Huih fid. 

Sabre, Fr. 
Sagac%, L. 
Salad, Fr. 
Salivate, L. 
Salmon, L. 
Salt cellar, L. 
Salt joe^re, L. 
Sanat^^;e, L. 
Sanguinary, L, 
Sanhedrim, Gr. 
Sapie?!^, L. 
Sarcasm, L. 
Satelh'^e, L. 
Satisfactio7i, L. 
Saturate, L. 
Sceptre, Fr. 
Schedule, L. 
Scheme, Gr. 
Schism, Gr. 
Scholium, L. 
Sciagraphj, Gr. 
Scintillation, L. 
Scissors, L. 
Se cede, L. 
/S'eclude, L. 
Seduce, L, 
Seize, Fr. 
SeTui circle, L. 
Seini diameter, L. 
Sensorium, L. 
Septennial, L. 
Septuagint, L. 
Sergeant, Fr. 
/Sexennial, L. 
/Sextant, L. 
Sieve, Sax. 
Silicious, L. 
Simony, L. 
Sinuoz^5, L. 



56 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



Sirius, L. 
Stenogrsiphj, Gr. 
Stiletto, It. 
Stereo type, Gr. 
Streperows, L. 
Sublunar?/, L. 
Sicbovn, L. 
Suh scribe, L. 
AS'wccinct, L. 
ASifccumb, L. 
Suffuse, L. 
/Superficies, L. 
Super lunar, L. 
Super scribe, L. 
Sur cingle, L. 
Surreptitious, L. 
Suspivation, L. 
/Syc^jphant, Gr. 
A%/iable, Gr. 
/Sy/logism, Gr. 
Symhol, Gr. 
Si/mmetry, Gr. 
Symplionj, Gr. 
/%??chronism, Gr. 
Synod, Gr. 
/%/zonyme, Gr. 
>Sy?zopsis, Gr. 
Syntax, Gr. 
A%7i thesis, Gr. 

Taciturn ity, L. 
Talmud, Heb. 
Tsingent, L. 
Tang^5Ze, L. 
Tantak'^e, L. 
Tanta mount, L. & 
Tapestry, Fr. 
Tart ness, Fr. 
Tautoiog-y, Gr. 
T^az^^ophony, Gr. 
Technical, Gr. 
Technology, Gr. 



Tegument, L. 
:7^e/egraph, Gr. 
7^e/e scope, Gr. 
TemenVy, L. 
Tenable, L. 
Tension, L. 
Tenu/^y, L. 
Termagant, Sax. 
terraqueous, L. 
Terrene, L. 
Theism, Gr. 
TheocrsiCj, Gr. 
Theology, Gr. 
Theorem, Gr. 
Theory, Gr. 
Thermo meter, Gr. 
ThraWom. 
Titilki^e, L. 
Tonsure, L. 
Topogrsiphy, Gr. 
Torrid, L. 
Tortuow5, L. 
Tract able, L. 
traduce, L. 
Tragedy, L. 
Tranquil lity, L. 
^ra^iscend, L. 
Tran scribe, L. 
Tra7i script, L. 
Transfer, L. 
Trans fix, L. 
Trails form, L. 
Trans fuse, L. 
^ra?isgress, L. 
2\ansit ion, L. 
F. 2ra?islate, L. 
Trans Ineent, L. 
Trans migrate, L. 
7r<:«i5mit, L. 
Trans mute, L. 
Trans pierce, L. 
Tran spire, L. 



Trans place, Sax. 
Trans plant, L. 
2\anspoYt, L. 
jTra^zspose, L. 
2?-<:m5ude, L. 
Trans verse, L. 
Trapezium, Gr. 
Trapezoic?, Gr. 
Tri angle, L. 
Triennial, L. 
Tri lateral, L. 
7V^phthong, Gr. 
Tri syllable, L. 
Trium-vir-ate, L. 
Truant, Fr. 
Tnbevcle, L. 
Tumulose, L. 
Turpitz«c?e, L. 
Tutelage, L. 
Tweezers, Fr. 
Typo graphic al, Gr. 
Tyranny, L. 

Ubiquity, L. 
Ulcer ate, L. 
Ultimate, T*. 
fT/^ra marine, L. 
Ultra mundane, L. 
Umbrage, L. 
Umbrella, L. 
Umpire. 
JJnetion, L. 
Undecagon, L. & Gr. 
Under ling. 
Under sell. 
Under write. 
Undulate, L. 
Unieovn, L. 
iTJzz form ity, L. 
C/7ZI verse, L. 
C/'wi vocal, L. 
Z7?i kind ness. 



TABLE OP WORDS. 



57 



Tin Idcw ful. 
Tin learn ed. 
Tin manage able. 
Un manner ly. 
Un popular ity, L. 
Un pre possessec?. 
Un re cover able. 
Un satisfy-inff, L. 
Un season able ness. 
Un sur mount able. 
Un translated, L. 
Un warlike. 
Un whole some. 
Up right ness. 
Up rising. 
Up side down. 
Uranology, Gr. 
Useful ness. 
Use less ness. 
Usurp ing ly. 
Utter most. 
Uxori-ous ness, L. 

Vaccme, L. 
Vacillate, L. 
Vacuum, L. 
Vale (\\Q,iion, L. 
Vain glorious ly. 
Valor ous ly, L. 
Value less. 
Van guard. 
Vanquish er. 
Vapor ish, L. 
Variegate, L. 
Vassal age, Fr. 
Yaiicide, L. 
Veli-fer-ous, L. 
Veloc%, L. 
Venal ity, L. 
Vend ible, L. 
Venison, Fr. 
Venom ous ness. 



Ventil«^e, L. 

Ventri\oQ\\xj, L. 
Venture some ly. 
YersLCity, L. 
Verbal ly, L. 
Yerherate, L. 
Verbia^^e, L. 

Ferdict, L. 

Veri-Ji-er, L. 

Veri similar, L. 
Vermina^e, L. 

Vermi-vor-ous, L. 

Vemacnlar, L. 

Versi-Ji-er, L. 

Vei'ti go, L. 
Yestihide, L. 
Vetercc^z, L. 
Vex ing ly. 
Vicarious ly, L. 
Vicar ship, L. 

Vice admiral fy. 

Vice gerent, L. 

Viceroy, Fr. 
Vicin«^^, L. 
Victor ess, L. 
Victuals, Fr. 
View less. 
Vignette, Fr. 
Vigor ous ness, L. 
Yincible ness, L. 
Vindicate, L. 
Ymiage, L. 
Yirility, L. 
Vitreow5 ness, L. 
Vitri/y, L. 
Vituperate, L. 
Vivacioz^s, L. 
Vocabulary, L. 
Vocative, L. 

Voci-fer-ous, L. 
VolubihVy, L. 
Voluptuows ness, L. 



Voraciow5 ness, L. 
Vouch 5q/e. 
Vulgar ism, L. 
Vulnera^/e, L. 

"Wagon er. Sax. 
Wake yitZ Tzess. 

Walk ing staff. 

TTa/^ flower. 
Warden ship, D. 

Fe/ come ness. 

Well wish er. 
West ward ly. 
Wharf age. 
Where so ever. 
Widow hood. 
Wife hood. 

Wind bound. 
Wire draw ing. 
'Whtful ly. 

Witch craft. 

With draw ing. 

With in side. 

With stand er. 
Wit less ly. 
Wit ?m^. 
Wolf 45^. 

J^^obalsamum, L. 
Xy/ographj, Gr. 

Yean ling. 
Year ^*;i^. 
Tester day, Sax. 
Young fo*?zy. 
Young s^en 

^oography, Gr. 
Zoology, Gr. 
Zoophyte, Gr. 
Zootomy, Gr. 
Zymology, Gr. 



METHOD OF TEACHING ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



NOUN. 



Let the teacher begin with the noun, and- repeat the defini- 
Hon, 'A noun is the 7iame of any person, place, thing, or idea* 
Let him continue repeating the definition, at intervals, while 
the following words are written on the black-board : — 

Man Boy George Mother Girl 

Boston City Town Europe State 

Book Chair Knife Paper Door 

Virtue Love Justice Weight "Whim. 

Then, with a rod or pointer, let him direct the attentijon of 
his pupils to each word separately. Commencing with the 
first, let him say. What is it ? Why a noun ? Is it the 
name of a person, place, thing, or idea ? Let him pursue the 
same course with the other words, and the definition of a 
noun will be fully understood. 

Let the teacher then say, ' There are two hinds of nouns, 
common and proper. A common noun is a general name. 
A proper noun is an individual or 'particular name.' Let 
him continue repeating these definitions, at intervalsj while 
the following words are written on the black-board : • — 



Scholar 
Teacher 
River 
Carriage 

America 



Father 
Sister 
Army 
Book 



Mountain 
Pleasure 
Woman 
People 



Industry 
Gentleman 
Wisdom 
Assembly 



England 

Washington 

James 



United States France Pompey 

Massachusetts London Alps 

Roxbury Charlestown Nancy 

Africa Penelope Polk. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word separately, and ask. What is it ? Why 
a noun ? Which kiiid of a noun ? and 2vhg ? In this way, 
he will soon teach his pupils to distinguish accurately between 
common and proper nouns. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



59 



Let the teacher then say, ' To nouns belong number, person, 
gender, and case. They have two numhers, the singular and 
plural. The singular number means but one ; the plural, 
more than one' Let him continue repeating these defini- 
tions, while the following words are written on the black- 
board : — 



Book 


Books 


Knife 


Knives 


Man 


Men 


Boy 


Boys 


Life 


Lives 


Ox 


Oxen 


Cloud 


Clouds 


Lady 


Ladies 


Tooth 


Teeth 


Day 


Days 


Duty 


Duties 


Foot 


Feet 


House 


Houses 


Box 


Boxes 


Mouse 


Mice 


Tree 


Trees 


Church 


Churches 


Louse 


Lice. 



Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word separately, ask the appropriate questions, 
and give further explanations. 

Let the teacher then say, ' Nouns have three persons ; the 
first, second, and third. The first person denotes the speaker. 
The second person denotes the person or thing spoken to. 
The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of or 
about.* Let him continue repeating these definitions, while 
the following examples are written on the black-board : — 

The salutation of me, Paul, with mine own hand. 

I, Victoria, queen of England, command you, my officer, to 
commit the traitor to prison. 

John and Nancy, come in : I, your father, wish to hear 
your lesson. 

ISly friend, you know that a life o? pleasure and dissipation 
is an enemy to health, fortune, and character. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word printed in Italics ; and ask, What person 
is it of? and why'^ In this way, scholars will soon learn to 
distinguish the different persons of nouns. 

Let the teacher then say, ' Nouns are said to have four 
distinctions, with regard to gender ; the masculine, feminine, 
common, and neuter. The masculine gender denotes males ; 
the feminine gender, females ; the common gender, either 
males or females ; and the neuter gender, neither males 
nor females.' Let him continue repeating these definitions, 
■while the following examples are written on the black- 
board : — 



60 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



Father 


Mother 


Parent 


Paper 


Husband 


Wife 


Friend 


Book 


Son 


Daughter 


Child 


Bench 


Brother 


Sister 


Cousin 


Wind 


Man 


Woman 


Nurse 


Cambridge 


Boy 
Lord 

Nephew- 
Uncle 


Girl 
Lady 
Niece 
Aunt 


Rival 
Enemy 
Bird 
Guide 


Mercy 
PencU 
Lamp 
Chair. 



Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each vjord separately ; and ask. What is its gender ? 
and why ? In this way, scholars wiU soon learn to distinguish 
the different genders of nouns. 

Let the teacher then say, ^ Nouns have /our cases ; the 
nopiinative, possessive, objective, and vocative. The nomina- 
tive case is the agent, actor, or doer, or the subject of a verb. 
The possessive case relates to property, possession, or author- 
ship. The objective case is the object of an action, or of a 
relation. The vocative case is used in calling a person, or in 
making a direct address.' Let him continue repeating these 
definitions, while the following examples are written on the 
hlack-board : — 

Charles received a letter from his sister, 

James and Johii have gone to school in Boston. 

The school of experience teaches many useful lessons. 

Food, clothing, and credit, are the rewards of industry. 

The scholar's diligence will secure his teacher's love. 

A mother's tenderness and 2i father's care are nature's gifts 
for man's advantage. 

My son, temper the vivacity of youth with a proper mix- 
ture of serious thought. 

Children, obey your parents in the Lord. 

Boys, come in ; take your seats, girls ; George, speak louder ; 
listen, Jane. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of hig 
pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain the subject fully. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



61 



ARTICLE. 

Let the teacher then take the article in connection with 
the noun. ' An article is a word prefixed to a 7ioun, to point 
it out, and show how far its signification extends. There are 
two articles, a or mi, and the. A or an is called the indefinite 
article, and agrees with a noun in the singular number only. 
The is called the definite article, and agrees with nouns, either 
in the singular or plural number.' Let him continue repeat- 
ing these definitions, while the following examples are written 
on the hlack-hoard : — 



A 


man 


A 


tree 


A pen 
A dog 
A bush 


A horse 


An 
An 
An 


, apple 
. orange 
. hour 


An 


\ honor 


An owl 


An idea 



The man 
The tree 
The pen 
The dog 
The bush 
The horse 
The apple 
The orange 
The hour 
The honor 
The owl 
The idea 



The men 
The trees 
The pens 
The dogs 
The bushes 
The horses 
The apples 
The oranges 
The hours 
The honors 
The owls 
The ideas. 



Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain the subject fully. 



ADJECTIVE. 



Let the teacher then take the adjective in connection 
with the 7ioun. 'An adjective is a word added to a noun, to 
describe, qualify, or limit it. Most adjectives are varied, so 
as to express three degrees of comparison ; the positive, com- 
parative, and superlative. The positive degree expresses the 
simple quality of an object ; the comparative degree increases 
or lessens it ; and the superlative degree increases or lessens 
it to the utmost.' Let him continue repeating these definitions, 
while the following examples are written on the black-board: — 
6 



62 



THE BLACK-BOAED. 



Long lesson 
JEtich man 
Soft apple 
Poor hat 
Safe waj 
Loud noise 
Good woman 
Bad road 
Little boy 
Pious man 
Generous man 



Longest lesson 
Richest man 
Softest apple 
Poorest hat 
Safest way 
Loudest noise 
-Ses^ woman 
TFbrs^ road 
Xea5i boy 
Most J0Z0M5 man 
Least generous man 
j^z^e months. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain the subject fully. 



Longer lesson 
Richer man 
Softer apple 
Poorer hat 
Safer way 
Louder noise 
Better woman 
Worse road 
Ze5S boy 
More pious man 
Less generous man 
O/ie boy received /or^^ dollars in 



PRONOUN. 



Let the teacher then take the pronoun. ' A pronoun is a 
word used instead of a noun, to avoid the too frequent repe- 
tition of the same word. There are/owr kinds of pronouns ; 
the personal, relative, interrogative, and adjective. The per- 
sonal pronouns are used instead of persons, and invariably 
represent the person of the nouns for which they stand. 
There are five personal pronouns, I, thou or you, he, she, it, 
with their variations in declension.' Let him continue repeat- 
ing these definitions, while the following examples are written 
on the hlaclc-hoard : — 

/love him and you ; but he hates me and her. 

You saw him and me ; but /did not see you or him. 

Thou canst speak to him ; but he will not speak to thee. 

He says, she is his friend ; and she says, he is ^cr friend. 

Wq urged ^Aem to stop with us ; but ^^e^ declined our invi- 
tation. 

J^ knowledge of your affairs induces me to say, yow are 
wrong. 

They hope that #Ae2r accounts will offset yours and mine.^ 

Charles lost his knife ; and John found it, and returned it. 

O ^AoM, whose name alone is Jehovah ! Te men of Israel ! 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 63 

Example showing the use of a Pronoun, 
When Washington had saved Washington's country, Wash- 
ington retired to Washington's plantation to spend the remain- 
der of Washington's life in retirement. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain the subject fully. 

Let the teacher then say, * The relative pronoun generally 
relates to some word or phrase going before, which is called 
the antecedent. The relative pronouns are loho, which, and 
that, and sometimes as, when it follows same or such' Let 
him continue repeating this in the hearing of his pupils, while 
the following examples are written on the black-hoard : — 

The scholar who improves his time, sets a good example. 

They who seek wisdom will find her. 

The man whom I saw yesterday, is dead. 

This is the tree which produces no fruit. 

The bird which sung so sweetly, is flown. 

He that acts wisely, deserves praise. 

Modesty is a quality that adorns a woman. 

This is the man whose brother is dead. 

Send him such books as will please him. 

Participles have the same government as their verbs have. 

No language is complete, whose verbs have not tenses. 

This is the friend whom I love. 

That is the vice which I hate. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain the subject fully. 

Let the teacher then say, ' The interrogative pronouns are 
used in asking questions. They are who, which, and what.^ 
Let him continue repeating this in the hearing of his pupils, 
while the following examples are written on the hlach- 
board: — 

Who are you ? Whose books have you ? 

Whom did you see ? Who wrote the letter ? 

What is your name ? Which is the best way ? 

What induced you to come ? With whom did you come ? 

Which color is the strongest ? Whose work is that ? 

What news have you ^ To vjhom did you speak ? 



64 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain the subject fully. 

Let the teacher then say, ' The adjective pronouns are of 
a mixed nature, having the properties both of pronouns and 
adjectives. The adjective pronouns are divided into three 
classes ; the distributive, demonstrative, and indejinite. The 
distributive pronouns are those which denote the persons or 
things that make up a number, as taken separately and singly. 
The demonstrative pronouns are those which precisely point 
out the subjects to which they relate. The indefinite pro- 
nouns are those which express their subjects in an indefinite 
or general manner.' Let him continue repeating these defini- 
tions, and, at intervals, make his pupils repeat them after him, 
while the following examples are written on the black-board: 

Speak to each boy, to every girl, to either sex, or to neither 
sex. 

As each is accountable, let each speak for himself. 
Every person, in every condition in life, should do right. 
Either of them is good enough, but I shall accept neither. 
TJiis or that man is right. 
This is right, and that is wrong. 
These or those men are right. 
These are right, and those are wrong. 
Some man or men ; other man or men ; any man or men ; 
such man or men ; same man or men ; one or another man ; 
all or both men ; all time or times. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each ivord printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain the subject fully. 



VERB. 



Let the teacher then say, * A verb is a word which asserts 
or affirms something of persons or things. There are three 
kinds of verbs ; the active, passive, and neuter. Verbs are 
either regidar or irregular. The active verb expresses an 
action which is either transitive or intransitive. It is^ transi- 
tive, when it has an object after it, either expressed or implied. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 65 

It is intransitive, when it has no ohject after it, either ex- 
pressed or impHed.' Let him continue repeating these defi- 
nitions, while the following examples are written on the 
black-board : — 

Men teach boys. The child walks. 

Boys train dogs. Susan S7niles. 

Bogs chase cats. John goes to school. 

Cats catch rats. The boy runs swiftly. 

Rats g7iaiv cheese. The sun rises and sets. 

Cheese breeds worms. The moon shines brightly. 

Worms eat animals. The hivdi flies away. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain the subject fully. 

Let the teacher then say, ' The passive verb (sometimes 
called receptive) expresses the suffering or receiving of an 
action or influence, and asserts that the nominative case is the 
receiver. The passive verb is formed by adding the perfect 
participle to the auxiliary be or am, through all its changes 
of number, person, mode, and tense.' Let him continue re- 
peating these definitions, while the following examples are 
written on the black-board: — 

Boys are taught by men. Cheese is gnawed by rats. 

Dogs are trained by boys. Worms are bred in cheese. 

Cats are chased by dogs. Animals are eaten by worms. 

Rats are killed by cats. John was struck by Charles. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain the subject fully. 

Let the teacher then say, ' The neuter verb expresses neither 
action nor the reception of an action, but being, or a state of 
being.^ Let him continue repeating this definition, while the 
following examples are written on the black-hoard : — 

The man is dead. The world exists. 

He was once aUve. The book lies on the desk. 

The warrior sleeps in the dust. The man becomes a fool. 
He reposes in the grave. The mountain stands. 

John sits still. Man's days are few. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
6* 



bb THE BLACK-BOARD. 

pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 

questions, and explain the subject fully. 

Let the teacher then say, ' To verbs belong person, number, 
mode, and tense. They have three persons ; the firsts second, 
and third ; — and two numbers, the singidar and plural ; — the 
same as their agents or nominative cases, with which they 
agree.' Let him continue repeating this, while the following 
examples are written on the black-board : — 

I love them. "We love them. John whistles. 

You love them. You love them. Nancy sings. 

He loves them. They love them. Lions roar. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain the subject fully. 

Let the teacher then say, ' Verbs have^ye modes ; the in- 
dicative, imperative, potential, subjunctive, and infinitive. The 
indicative mood simply indicates or declares a thing. The 
imperative mode is used in commanding, exhorting, or permit-- 
ting. The potential mode implies possibility, liberty, power, 
will, or obligation. The subjunctive mode expresses an ac- 
tion in a doijd>tful, conditional, or supposable manner. The 
infinitive mode expresses an action in a general and unlimited 
manner, without any distinction of number or person.' Let 
him continue repeating these definitions, and, at intervals, 
make his pupils repeat them after him, while the following 
examples are written on the black-board : — 

The man works; the boy plays; the do^arks; the bell tolls. 
Scholars learn ; girls dance ; birds sing ; the ship sails. 
Depart thou ; mind ye ; go in peace. 
Coyne here ; hold up your head ; speak out, and tell the 
truth. 

I may obey, I can obey, I must obey, the teacher. 

I might, could, shoidd, or woidd, obey the teacher. 

If he go, acquire riches, and have money ; if I 5e right. 

If he loere here ; were he good ; unless he repent, &c. 

Cease to do evil ; we have talents to improve ; let him go. 

She is eager to learn ; the question is difficult to be solved. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain the subject fully. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 67 

Let tlie teacher then say, ' Verbs have six tenses; the present, 
imperfect, perfect^ pluperfect^ first and second future. The 
present tense represents an action or event as now taking 
place. The imperfect tense represents what took phice in time 
past, however distant. The perfect tense not only refers to 
what is past, but conveys an allusion to the present time. 
The pluperfect tense represents an action or event which took 
place hefore some otlier past time mentioned. 'The, first future 
tense represents wdiat will take place hereafter. The second 
future tense represents what will have taken place, at or before 
some future time mentioned.* Let him continue repeating 
these defiyiitions, and, at intervals, make his pupils repeat 
them after him, while the following examples are WTitten on 
the hlack-hoard: — 

John reads well. Does he read well ? 

James spoke w^ell. Does he speak well ? 

Susan has recited. Has she recited^ 

Nancy had gone home. Had she gone home ? 

I shall see them again. Shall I see them again ? 

We shall have dined at one o'clock. Shall w^e have dined ? &c. 

Then, wdth the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain the subject fully. Let him here ex- 
plain the use and nature of auxiliary verhs, and also the dif- 
ference between regidar and irregular verbs. 

Let the teacher then say, ' The participle is a certain form, 
of the verb, and has the nature of a verh, an adjective, and a 
noun. There are three kinds of participles ; tlie present, per- 
fect, and compound perfect.^ Let him continue repeating 
this, while the following examples are written on the hlach- 
hoard : — 

Loving, Loved, Having loved ; 
Being loved. Loved, Having heen loved ; 
Having heen loving. 
Being informed of the dangers surrounding him, he re- 
turned home. 

Having sought the truth with a loving heart, he prized it 
highly. ^ 

Having heen deceived, he lost all confidence in others. 
Despised and rejected by men, he sought retirement. 



68 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain the subject fully* 



ADVERB. 



Let the teacher then say, ' An adverh is a word used to 
modify the meaning of a verb, participle, adjective, preposition, 
or another adverh J Let him continue repeating this, while 
the following examples are written on the hlack-board : — 

The bird sings sweetly. Henry improves rapidly. 

Singing sweetly and dancing elegantly, she is admired. 

James is very attentive. John is quite busy. 

The ship sailed nearly round the globe. 

The boys write too fast. Some read very well. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain the subject fully. 



PREPOSITION. 

Let the teacher then say, * A preposition is a word which 
serves to connect words with one another, and to show the rela- 
tion between them. Prepositions generally show the relation 
between some preceding verh, participle, or adjective, and the 
oioun or pronoun which they govern in the objective case.' 
Let him continue repeating these definitions, while the follow- 
ing examples are written on the Uach-hoard :■ — 

John came from New York to Boston, on the rail-road, in 
five hours. 

With his friends, in a carriage drawn hy four horses, he went 
to Salem over the turnpike through Lynn. 

The dog ran about the yard, around the house, over the 
fence, across the street, into the stable of his master. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain ihQ subject fully. 



ENGLISH GRAMMER. 69 



CONJUNCTION. 

Let the teacher then say, ' A conjunction is a word chiefly 
used to connect sentences, or members of a sentence. Some- 
times it connects only words. There are two kinds of con- 
junctions, the copulative and the disjunctive. The copulative 
conjunction connects and continues the sense ; but the disjunc- 
tive conjunction expresses opposition of meaning in different 
degrees.' Let him continue repeating these definitions, while 
the following examples are written on the Uack-hoard: — 

Nancy reads well, and is a good scholar. 

I will go, if jow accompany me. 

You are happy, because you are good. 

Two, and three, and four, make nine. 

He denied that he had made the assertion. 

They came with her, hut returned without her. 

He is older than she ; and he should have known better. 

You must do it now, or all will be lost. 

Though he chide me, yet will I trust in him. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain the subject fully. 



INTERJECTION- 

Let the teacher then say, * An interjection is a word used 
to express the passion or emotion of the speaker or writer.* 
Let him continue repeating this, while the following examples 
are written on the black-board : — 

Oh ! wretched state ! death ! where is thy sting ? 

Alas ! I fear for life. Hush ! you will wake your father. 

Ah ! I am ruined. Fie I cousin Percy. 

Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 
pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate 
questions, and explain the subject fully. 



70 s THE BLACK-BOARD. 



PUNCTUATION 



Punctuation is the art of dividing written or printed 
composition into sentences, or parts of sentences, by the use 
of points or stops. 

Note. — As the rules for punctuation are founded on the 
grammatical construction of sentences, their application pre- 
supposes, on the part of the scholar, a knowledge of the differ- 
ent kinds of phrases, such as adjunct or imperfect phrases, 
incidental and appendant phrases ; of members and clauses ; 
and also of simple, compound, and complex sentences. For an 
explanation of these, see Goldsbury's Grammar, page 86, and 
Sequel to the Grammar, page Qb, 

THE COMMA. 

The comma [,] represents the shortest pause in reading, 
and the smallest division in written or printed composition. 

Rule 1. A short simple sentence should not be separated 
by a comma ; as, * God is love.' ' The sky is blue.' ' The sea 
is green.' 'The lion is bold.' 'This pleases me.' 'That 
pleases you.' ' Money is the root of all evil.' ' Truth is the 
basis of every virtue.' * Honesty is the best policy.' 

Remark. — This rule needs no further illustration. There 
are a few exceptions to it ; as, ' Boys, come in.' ' Take your 
seats, girls.' 'My son, give me thy heart.' 'Never, no, 
never, will I submit.' 

Rule 2. When a simple sentence is long, and the nomina- 
tive is accompanied with an inseparable adjunct of import- 
ance, it may admit a comma immediately before the verb ; as, 
* The good taste of the present age, is in favor of learning.' 

Exercises for the Blach-board. 
Write and punctuate the following : ' The great end of all 
human industry is the attainment of happiness.' '^ The inter- 
mixture of evil in human society serves to exercise the no- 
blest virtues of the human soul.' ' To be diligently employed 
in the performance of real duties is honorable.' ' To endeavor 
to work upon the vulgar with fine sense is like attempting to 



PUNCTUATION. 71 

lew blocks with a razor.' ' One of the noblest of the Chris- 
ian virtues is to love our enemies.' ' To be totally indifferent 
,o praise or censure is a real defect in character.' * Their 
)eing singled out for excuse on the score of ignorance would 
mply the withholding forgiveness from others who were 
)etter informed.' 

Rule 3. When the connection of the different parts of a 
simple sentence, is interrupted by an incidental phrase of im- 
portance, a comma must be placed both before and after the 
ihrase ; as, ' Truth, when reduced to practice, easily becomes 
subject to caprice and passion.' 

Exercises for the Blach-hoard, 
Write and punctuate the following : ' The king approving 
he plan put it into execution.' ' The travellers set out early 
md before the close of the day arrived at the destined place.' 
The work is in many respects very imperfect.' ' The pious 
nan even when persecuted is a happy man.' * The prince 
vithout further trouble succeeded.' ' Trials in this stage of 
)ur being are the lot of man.' ' Benevolence all will admit 
s a godlike virtue.' ' Some by being too artful forfeit the 
•eputation of probity : others by being too open are thought 

fail in prudence.' 

Rule 4. All incidental words and phrases, coming between 

1 nominative case and its verb, and not immediately depend- 
ng upon the nominative, require a comma both before and 
ifter them ; as, ' Vices, like shadows, towards the evening of 
ife, grow great and monstrous.' 

Exercises for the JBlach-board, 

Write and punctuate the following : ' Benjamin West once 
President of the Royal Academy in London a native of Spring- 
ield Pennsylvania was an American by birth.' ^ Temperance 
ays a celebrated writer by fortifying the mind and body leads 
happiness.' ' Intemperance says the same writer by ener- 
vating them ends generally in misery.' ' The teacher being 
isked among other questions what studies he thought most im- 
)ortant for young scholars answered.' ' Fine writing according 
Addison who was himself a fine writer consists in the ex- 
•ression of natural sentiments.' 



72 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

Rule 5. All incidental words and phrases, like the follow- 
ing, ahove all, again, on the contrary, nay, in the next place, in 
short, once more, first, secondly, formerly, lastly, hence, &c., 
are generally separated from the sentence by a comma. 

Exercises for the Black-hoard. 
Write and punctuate the following : ' In general his work 
is superior to mine.' ' I like above all things a good scholar.' 

* Indeed this is most true.' ' Nay it could not be otherwise.' 

* At least so it seems to me.' ' At length they took pity on 
him.' ' I proceed secondly to point out the difference.' ' This 
is perhaps one of them.' ' He was at last convinced of his 
error.' ' Besides it may be advantageous to you.' ' Unfor- 
tunately he thinks too highly of himself.' ' Nay on the con- 
trary he is very humble.' ' Here every thing is in stir and 
fluctuation.' ' There all is serene and orderly.' 

ErULE 6. All words and phrases, repeated for the sake of 
emphasis, must be separated from the rest of the sentence, by 
a comma ; as, ' Never, no, never, will just Heaven accuse.' 

Exercises for the Black-hoard, 
Write and punctuate the following : * Turn ye turn ye.' ' I 
■will overturn overturn overturn.' ' Woe woe w^oe to the in- 
habitants of the earth.' ' Comfort ye comfort ye my people.' 

* I shall never submit — never never never.' '■ Lend lend 
your wings.' ' My prize my beauteous prize I will resign.' 

KuLE 7. All words and phrases, when not standing in regu- 
lar prosaic order, or when placed in opposition to each other, 
require commas after each of them ; as, 

* Then lambs, with wolves, shall graze the verdant mead ; 
And boys, in flowery bands, the tiger lead.' 

Exercises for the Black-hoard. 
Write and punctuate the following: 'Yain frivolous and 
irascible with little sense and with no principle he was almost 
universally despised.' * Good men in this frail imperfect state 
are often found not only in union with but in opposition to the 
views and conduct of one another.' 

* Though deep yet clear ; though gentle yet not dull ; 
Strong without rage ; without o'erflowing full.' 



PUNCTUATION. 73 

* Contrasted faults through all their manners reign ; 
Though poor luxurious ; though submissive vain ; 
Though grave yet trifling ; zealous yet untrue ; 
And even in penance planning sins anew.' 

' Religion dwells not in the tongue but in the heart.' * Even- 
ing is the time to review not only our blessings but our actions.' 

Rule 8. An incidental word or phrase, introduced to ex- 
plain another word or phrase, must have a comma both before 
and after it; as, 'John, the brother of James, is dead.' 

Exercises for the Blach-board, 
Write and punctuate the following : ' Paul the apostle of 
the Gentiles was eminent for his zeal and knowledge.' * The 
island of Mona now Anglesea was the chief seat of the Dru- 
ids.' ' Homer the greatest poet of antiquity is said to have 
been blind.' ' Augustus the Roman emperor was a patron of 
the fine arts.' ' Constantinople the capital of Turkey is finely 
situated on the Bosphorus.' ' Cicero was oppressed by a new 
affliction the death of his beloved Tullia.' 'The butterfly 
child of the summer flutters in the sun.' 

Rule 9. When several words of any class succeed each 
other, a comma should be placed after each ; as, ' AVilliam, 
Henry, James, and Seth, are good scholars*' ' The father, 
the mother, and the son, have gone down to the grave.' 

Exercises for the Blach-board. 
Write and punctuate the following: 'In the least insect 
there are muscles nerves joints veins arteries and blood.' 
' The most innocent pleasures are the sweetest the most ra- 
tional the most affecting and the most desirable.' ' We may 
advise exhort comfort and entreat the. sinner.' ' A youth fear- 
ing serving and loving God will be trusted relied upon and 
esteemed.' ' You should seek after knowledge steadily pa- 
tiently and perseveringly.' ' The husband wife and children 
suffered extremely.' ' They took away their furniture clothes 
and stock in trade.' ' He is alternately supported by his father 
his uncle and his elder brother.' ' Power and wisdom and 
goodness shine forth in the works of creation.' 'Reading 
writing English grammar geography and arithmetic are the 
7 



74 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

most essential branches of common school education.' ' Food 
clothing and credit are the rewards of industry.' 

Rule 10. Two or more adjectives, belonging to the same 
noun, should be separated by a comma ; as, ' David was a 
brave, wise, and pious man.' But two adjectives, immediately 
connected by a conjunction, should not be separated by a com- 
ma ; as, ' Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uniform 
and consistent.' 

Exercises for the Black-hoard. 
Write and 'punctuate the following : 'A woman gentle sen- 
sible well-educated and religious.' ' Plain honest truth wants 
no artificial covering.' ' Conscious guilt renders us mean- 
spirited timorous and base.' ' The apprentice is a very sharp 
active youth.' 'John is a tall muscular man.' 'A hardy 
honest peasantry are the glory of an agricultural country.* 
'Their indefatigable systematic attention to business claims 
our admiration and praise.' 

Rule 11. When a verb, or any important word necessary 
to the full meaning of a sentence, is omitted, a comma may 
supply its place ; as, ' From law arises security ; from security, 
curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge.' But, in other instances, 
especially where it would divide the sentence too much, it is 
better to omit the comma ; as, ' No station is so high, no power 
so great, no character so unblemished, as to exempt men from 
the attacks of rashness, malice, and envy.' 

Exercises for the Black-board. 
Write, and punctuate when necessary, the following : * Read- 
ing makes a full man ; confidence a ready man ; and writing 
an exact man.' ' Passion overcame shame ; boldness fear ; and 
madness reason.' ' Chaucer most frequently describes things as 
they are ; Spenser as he wished them to be ; Shakspeare as they 
would be ; and Milton as they ought to be.' ' Semiramis built 
Babylon ; Dido Carthage ; and Romulus Rome.' ' The Gre- 
cians excel in precepts ; the Romans in examples.' ' To 
mourn without measure is folly ; not to mourn at all insensi- 
bility.' ' Strength and energy distinguish the characters of 
Homer and Michael Angelo ; beauty and propriety those of 
Virgil and Raphael.' ' The minor longs to be of age, then to 



PUNCTUATION. 75 

be a man of business, then to make up an estate, then to 
arrive at honors, then to retire.' 

EuLE 12. When two words of the same sort, are connected 
by a conjunction expressed, they must not be separated ; as, 
' Stud}^ expands and elevates the mind.' When words are 
connected in pairs, the pairs only should be separated ; as, 

* There is a natural difference between merit and demerit, 
virtue and vice, wisdom and folly.' 

Exercises for the Slack-hoard. 
Write, and punctuate v/hen necessary, the following : ' Homer 
and Virgil were excellent poets.' ' Wise and good men are gen- 
erally respected.' ' The study of history informs and enlarges 
the mind.' ' Admired and applauded he became vain.' ' Cicero 
spoke forcibly and fluently.' ' Is it fancy or fact ? ' ' Hope 
and fear pleasure and pain diversify our lives.' ' A wise man 
observes and listens reads and reflects.' ' Friendship is cool 
and deliberate sedate and temperate steady and discreet.' 

* Interest and ambition honor and shame friendship and enmity 
gratitude and revenge are the prime movers in public trans- 
actions.' ' The avaricious man contrives or labors praises or 
depreciates misleads or overreaches just as his present interest 
dictates.' 

Rule 13. The vocative or independent case, the case abso- 
lute, and the infinitive mode absolute, should be separated from 
the rest of the sentence, by a comma ; as, '■My son, give me 
thy heart.' ^Ilis father dying, he succeeded to the estate.' 
^To confess the truth, I was in fault.' 

Exercises for the Black-hoard. 
Write nnd punctuate the following : ' I thank you madam.' 

* I am obliged to you ladies.' ' I remain sir your obedient 
servant.' ' Continue my dear James to make virtue your 
principal study.' ' Yours is the time my young friends for 
acquiring virtuous habits.' ' Be seated gentlemen.' ' Acquire 
my children the habit of doing every thing well.' *John 
come here.' ' Virtue triumphing man may rejoice.' ' Peace 
of mind being secured we may smile at misfortunes.' ' Charles 
having been deprived of the help of his tutors his studies be- 
came totally neglected.' ' Virtue abandoned and conscience 



76 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

reproacliing us we become terrified with imaginary evils.' 
* To say the least they have betrayed great want of prudence.' 
' To enjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his future ease and 
reputation.' ' To prevent further altercation I submit to the 
terms proposed.' 

Rule 14. Comparative or complex sentences, whose mem- 
bers are short, and sentences connected by relative pronouns^ 
the meaning of whose antecedents is limited to a particular 
sense, should not be separated by a comma ; as, ' Wisdom is 
better than riches.' ' Give it to the man whom you most 
esteem.' But when the complex sentence is long, or when 
the antecedent of the relative is used in a general sense, a 
comma should be placed before the tkaii, in the one instance, 
and before the relative, in the other ; as, ' Better is a dinner 
of herbs with love, tha7i a stalled ox and hatred with it.' 
' There is no charm in the female sex, which can supply the 
place of virtue.' 

Exercises for the Mack-hoard. 

Write, and punctuate when necessary, the following : ' He 
acted more from caprice than reason.' ' What is sweeter than 
honey stronger than a lion or hotter than fire ? ' ' Expect no 
more from the world than it is able to afford you.' ' The friend- 
ships of the world can subsist no longer than interest cements 
them.' ' Nothing is more opposed to true enjoyment than indo- 
lence.' ' The more a man speaks of himself the less he likes to 
hear another spoken of.' ' As virtue is its own reward so vice is 
its own punishment.' ' As the heart panteth after the water- 
brooks so doth my soul pant after thee.' ' Self-denial is the 
sacrifice which virtue must make.' ' The rewards which v/ere 
promised shall be given.' ' There are witnesses of the fact 
which I have mentioned.' ' The man who is faithfully at- 
tached to religion may be relied on with confidence.' ' Be- 
hold the emblem of thy state in flowers which bloom and die.' 
' No man ever attained lasting fame who did not contradict 
the prejudices of popular applause.' ' No man continues long 
to respect his benefactors who allows himself freely to talk of 
their faults.' . 

j\^ate. — The foregoing rules and exercises are suflacient, 
perhaps, to suggest to the learner, in ordinary cases, the proper 
place for inserting the comma. The two following remarksy 



PUNCTUATION. 77 

however, accompanied by examples and exercises, may tlirow 
some furllier light upon the subject. 

Remark 1. When a sentence consists of two parts, one de- 
pending on the other for sense, a comma should be placed 
between them ; as, ' People are unpolite, because they are ig- 
norant' ' If you would be revenged on your enemies, let your 
life be blameless.' 

Remark 2. Consecutive phrases and clauses, similarly con- 
structed in the same sentence, should be separated from each 
other by commas ; as, ' No station is so high, no power so 
great, no character so unblemished, as to exempt men from, 
the attacks of malice or envy.' 

Exercises for the Black-hoard. 
Write and 'punctuate the following : ' By the faults of others 
wise men correct their own.' ' Neither flatter yourselves nor 
permit others to flatter you.' ' Shame being lost all virtue is 
lost.' ' If we would die well we must live well.' ' While the 
bridegroom tarried they all slumbered and slept.' ' The good 
which men do is not lost though often disregarded.' ' Be- 
cause they are regular the pleasures of the temperate man are 
durable.' ' Unless it blossom in the spring the tree will not 
bear fruit in autumn.' ' To be wise in our ov/n eyes to be wise 
in the opinion of the world and to be wise in the sight of our 
Creator seldom coincide.' 'Human society requires distinc- 
tions q{ property diversity of conditions subordination of ranks 
and a multiplicity of occupations.' ' Friendship eases and 
unloads the mind clears and improves the understanding ani- 
mates virtue and good resolutions and finds employment for 
our most vacant hours.' ' TJie astonishing multiplicity of 
created beings the wonderful laws of nature the beautiful ar- 
rangement of the heavenly bodies the elegance of the vegeta- 
ble world the operations of animal life and the amazing har- 
mony of tlie whole creation loudly proclaim the wisdom of 
the Deity.' 



THE SEMICOLON. 



The semicolon [ ; ] is used to separate the parts of a sen- 
tence, somewhat less closely connected than those which are 
separated by a comma. 



78 THE BLACK-BOARI). 

E-ULE 1. When the preceding member of the sentence does 
not of itself give complete sense, but depends on the following 
clause, and sometimes when the sense of that member would 
be complete without the concluding one, the semicolon is used ; 
as, ' The wise man is happy, when he gains his own approba- 
tion ; the fool, ^vhen he gains the applause of those around 
him/ 

Exercises for the BlacJc-hoard. 
Write and punctuate the following : ' Do not think yourself 
perfect for imperfection is natural to humanity.' ' Genius 
breaks from the fetters of criticism but its wanderings are 
sanctioned by its majesty and wisdom.' ' Modesty is one of 
the chief ornaments of youth and it has ever been esteemed 
a presage of rising merit.' ' Straws swim on the surface but 
pearls lie at the bottom.' * This is not what religion requires 
nor does it enjoin any such observance.' ' Bryant's poems 
are beautifully composed and I have read them with much 
pleasure/ 

Rule 2. When an example is introduced to illustrate a 
rule or proposition, the semicolon may be used before the con- 
junction as : thus, ' Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, 
She gave the book to him.' 

Exercises for the Black-hoard. 

Write and punctuate the following : ' A noun is the name of 
some person or thing as, man.' ' Adjectives qualify nouns as, 
good man.' ' Pronouns are used instead of nouns as, he did 
it.' ' A verb asserts or affirms something as, the bell tolls.' 
' The nominative case governs the verb in number and person 
as, thou art the man.' 

Remark. — Short sentences slightly connected, and a series 
of clauses having a common difference, are frequently sepa- 
rated by semicolons ; as, ' Eveiy thing grows old ; every 
thing passes away ; every thing disappears.' ' Philosophers 
assert, that nature is unlimited in her operations ; that she 
has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that knowledge will 
always be progressive ; and that all future generations will 
continue to make discoveries, of which we have not the 
slightest idea.' 



PUNCTUxVTION. 79 

Exercises for the Black-hoard. 

Write and punctuate the following : * The epic poem recites 
the exploits of a hero tragedy represents a disastrous event 
comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind pastoral 
poetry describes rural life and elegy displays the tender emo- 
tions of the heart.' ' The pride of wealth is contemptible the 
pride of learning is pitiable the pride of dignity is ridiculous 
and the pride of bigotry is insupportable.' ' The world is still 
renewed with fresh life and beauty with a constant succession 
of trees and plants with a new race of animals with a new 
generation of men.' 

' But who the melodies of morn can tell ? — 
The wild brook, babbling down the mountain's side 
The lowing herd the sheepfold's simple bell 
The pipe of early shepherd, dim descried 
In the lone valley echoing far and wide, 
The clamorous horn along the cliffs above 
The hollow murmur of the ocean tide 
The hum of bees the linnet's lay of love 
And the full choir that wakes the universal grove.' 



THE COLON. 

The colon [ : ] is used to divide a sentence into two or more 
parts less connected than those which are separated by a semi- 
colon, but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences. 

Rule 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in it- 
self, but followed by some supplemental remark, or farther 
illustration of the subject, the colon may be properly employed ; 
as, ' Nature felt her inability to extricate herself from the con- 
sequences of guilt : the gospel revealed the plan of divine 
interposition and aid.' 

Exercises for the Black-hoard. 

Write and punctuate the following : ' Study to acquire the 

habit of thinking no study is more important.' ' Endeavor to 

excel much may be accomplished by perseverance.' ' There 

is no mortal truly wise and restless at the same time wisdom 



80 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

is tlie repose of the mind.' ' Virtue is too lovely and useful to 
be immured in a cell the world is the sphere of her action.' 
* A friend exaggerates a man's virtues an enemy inflames his 
crimes.' ' Harbor no malice in thy heart it will be a viper in 
thy bosom.' ' Do not insult a poor man his miseries entitle 
him to pity.' ' Do not despise human life it is the gift of 
God.' ' Be upon thy guard against flattery it is an insidious 
poison.' 

Rule 2. When a semicolon has preceded, or more than 
one, and a still greater pause is necessary, in order to mark 
the connecting or concluding sentiment, the colon should be 
applied ; as, ' A Divine Legislator, uttering his voice from 
heaven ; an Almighty Governor, stretching forth his arm to 
punish or reward ; informing us of perpetual rest prepared 
for the righteous hereafter, and of indignation and wrath 
awaiting the wicked : these are considerations which overawe 
the world, which support integrity, and check guilt.' 

Exercises for the Black-hoard. 
Write and punctuate the following : ' By doing our duty to 
God and man by acquiring an humble trust in the mercy 
and favor of God by cultivating our minds, and properly em- 
ploying our time and thoughts by correcting all our unreason- 
able expectations, and in the midst of worldly business, habit- 
uating ourselves to calm retreat and serious recollection by 
such means as these, it may be hoped, that, through the Di- 
vine blessing, our days shall flow in a stream as unruffled as 
the human state admits.' 

' Oh ! how canst thou renounce the boundless store 
Of charms that Nature to her votary yields ! 
The warbling woodlands, the resounding shore, 
The pomp of groves, the garniture of fields 
All that the genial ray of morning gilds. 
And all that echoes to the song of even 
All that the mountain's sheltering bosom shields, 
And all the dread magnificence of heaven 
Oh ! how canst thou renounce and hope to be forgiven ! ' 
Remark. — Dr. Webster seems to be opposed to the use of 
the colon. He says, ' The colon is of little use ; the differ- 
ence between the colon and semicolon is so small, that the two 
pauses are frequently confounded, as may be seen in our pres- 



PtJNCTUATION. 81 

ent version of the Proverbs. It is said that a colon should 
be placed before a quotation ; but I consider the use of the 
semicolon preferable. I conceive the colon might be rejected 
without injury to the perspicuity of sentences, and punctua- 
tion very much simplified by substituting the semicolon and 
the full point/ 



THE PERIOD. 

The 'period [ . ] serves to indicate the end of a sentence 
which is assertive in its nature, and independent of any 
following sentence. 

Rule 1. AVhen a sentence is complete, and so independent 
as not to be connected with the one which follows it, a period 
should be inserted at its close ; as, ' Fear God.' ' Honor the 
patriot.' 

Exercises for the Black-hoard. 
Write and punctuate the following : '• Truth is the basis of 
every virtue It is the voice of reason Let its precepts be 
religiously obeyed Never transgress its limits Every devia- 
tion from truth is criminal Abhor a falsehood Let your 
words be ingenuous Sincerity possesses the most powerful 
charm It acquires the veneration of mankind Its path is 
security and peace It is acceptable to God.' 

Rule 2. The period should follow every abbreviated word ; 
as, ' Viz., Mass., Col., Va., Mr., U. S. A., Jos.' 

Exercises for the Blach-hoard. 
Write siiid punctuate the following : ' The accident happened 
at half past nine, A M ; and the person died at ten o'clock, 
P M.' ' The Capt , Col , and Gen , were there.' ' The degrees 
of A B , AM, M D , LL B , D D , and LL D , were 
conferred without much discrimination.' * Geo , Wm , Chas , 
Eben , Josh , Tim , and Jas , spoke at the exhibition.' * I 
have travelled through the States of Mass , Me , Vt , N H , 
NY, and S C ' The Gov , Lieut Gov , the U S A offi- 
cers, and many members of the Sen and House of Rep , were 
in the procession.' 



82 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

THE INTERROGATION. 

The note of interrogation [ ? ] shows, that a question is 
asked by the words to which it is affixed ; as, ' How old are 
you?' 

Remark. The interrogative mark should not be used, when 
the expression denoting inquiry is put in any other form than 
that of a direct question ; as, ' He asked me, Avhy I wept.' 

Exercises for the Black-hoard. 
Write and 'punctuate the following : ' What is civilization 
Where is it What does it consist in By what is it excluded 
Where does it commence Where does it end By what sign 
is it known How is it defined In short, what does it mean * 
* What is it Why an adjective What belong to adjectives 
Can you vary it Is it regularly or irregularly varied What 
degree is it Why positive, comparative, or superlative With 
what does it agree and what is the rule ' ' I met a man who 
inquired the way to Boston He wanted to know how many 
roads there were leading to the city and wliich was the near- 
est way ' 



THE EXCLAMATION. 

The note of exclamation [ ! ] expresses admiration, wonder, 
joy, grief, &c., and is also used after invocations and addresses ; 
as, ' My friend ! this conduct amazes me ! ' ' Oh ! how happy 
we shall be ! ' 

Exercises for the Black-hoard. 
Write and punctuate the following : * Fathers senators of 
Home the arbiters of nations to you I fly for refuge.' * Alas 
poor Yorick.' ' Hear me, O Lord for thy loving kindness is 
great.' ' Eternity thou pleasing, dreadful thought ' ' A horse 
a horse my kingdom for a horse ' ' What a piece of work is 
man How noble in reason how infinite in faculties in form 
and moving, how express and admirable in action, how like 
an angel in apprehension, how like a god ' * Woe to the trai- 
txDr, woe ' ' Up comrades, up ' * Awake arise or be for ever 
fallen ' ' Step softly speak low make no noise ' ' Oh bless 
the Lord, ray soul ' ' O God my heavenly Father ' 



PUNCTUATION. 83 

Remark. — The interjection is properly prefixed to an 
expression in a direct address or vocative case; but the 
interjection oh ought never to be so employed. should be 
used without the mark of exclamation immediately after it ; 
but oh, sometimes with, and sometimes without it, according 
to the construction and sense of the passage in which it occurs ; 
as, ' O God ! ' ' Oh ! what a glorious day ! ' 'Oh that I knew 
my fate ! ' 



THE DASH. 

The dash [ — ] is a straight line, and is used for the pur- 
poses specified in the following rules. 

Rule 1. The dash may be used with propriety, where the 
sentence breaks off abruptly ; where a significant pause is 
required ; or where there is an unexpected turn in the senti- 
ment; as, 

' Here lies the great — False marble ! where ? 
Nothing but sordid dust lies here.* 

Exercises for the Blach-hoard. 

Write and punctuate the following : * Was there ever a 

bolder captain of a more valiant band ? Was there ever but 

I scorn to boast.' * If you will give your attention, I will 

show you but stop ! I do not know that you wish to see.' 

* Then the eye of a child who can look unmoved into that 

* well undefiled,' in which heaven itself seems to be reflected ? ' 

* He sometimes counsel takes and sometimes snufF.' ' There 
was silence not a word was said their meal was before them 
God had been thanked, and they began to eat.' ' When the 
poor victims were bayoneted, clinging round the knees of the 
soldiers, would my friend but I can not pursue the strain of 
my interrogation.' ' He was too weak, however, to talk he 
could only look his thanks.' ' The four greatest names in 
English poetry are almost the first four we come to Chaucer, 
Spenser, Shakspeare, and Milton.' ' Shall I, who was born, 
and brought up, in the tent of my father, that most excellent 
general shall I, the conqueror of Spain and Gaul, and not 
only of the Alpine nations, but of the Alps themselves shall I 
compare myself with this half-year captain ? ' 



84 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

Rule 2. The dash may be used after a comma or semi- 
colon, between the several clauses of a long sentence, when 
they constitute a series ; as, ' If acting conformably to the will 
of our Creator ; — if promoting the welfare of mankind around 
us; — if securing our own happiness; — are objects of the 
highest moment : then are we loudly called upon to cultivate 
and extend the great interests of religion and virtue.' 

Exercises for the Black-hoard. 
Write and punctuate the following : ' The noble indignation 
with which Emmett repelled the charge of treason against his 
country the eloquent vindication of his name and his pathetic 
appeal to posterity, in the hopeless hour of condemnation all 
these entered deeply into every generous bosom, and even liis 
enemies lamented the stern policy that dictated his execution.' 

* The poor child of nature beholds God in the star that sinks 
in beauty behind his lonely dwelling in the sacred orb that 
flames on him from his midway throne in the flower that 
snaps in the morning breeze in the lofty pine that defies a 
thousand whirlwinds in the timid warbler that never leaves 
his native grove in the fearless eagle whose untired pinion is 
v\ret in clouds in the worm that crawls at his feet and in his 
own matchless form glowing with a spark of that light to 
whose mysterious source he bends in humble, though blind 
adoration.* 

Remarh. — Some writers use the dash instead of the paren- 
thetical marks; as, * Every star — if we may judge by analo- 
gy — is a sun to a system of planets.' Others use it, where 
there happens to be an ellipsis of words or phrases ; as- 

* What ! is it only in dreams, that beauty and loveliness have 
beamed on me from the human countenance, — that I have 
heard tones of kindness, which have thrilled through my 
heart, — that I have found sympathy in suffering, and a 
sacred joy in friendship ? ' Others, again, use it variously, 
"without regard to any rule or principle. 



THE HYPHEN. 



The hyphen [-] is used at the end of a line to unite syl- 
lables of the same word, when part is written in one line and 
part in the next. It is also used to join two words so as to 



PUNCTUATION. 85 

make one ; as, * church-yard ;' and also to keep distinct what 
should be separate syllables ; as, ' Zo-ology.' 

Remark. — The scholar should be very .careful to use the 
hyphen properly. At the end of a line, he should never split 
or divide a syllable ; and, in forming compound words, he 
should never use the hyphen where * good usage ' has made 
the words to coalesce. 



THE PARENTHESIS. 

The parenthetical marks ( ) are two curved lines, which 
include a part of a sentence containing some necessary infor- 
mation, or useful remark, but which may be omitted without 
destroying the sense ; as, 

* Know, then, this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below.' 

Exercises for the Black-hoard* 
Write and punctuate the following : ^ Every planet as the 
Creator has made nothing in vain is most probably inhabited.' 
* If we exercise upright principles and we cannot have them 
unless we exercise them, they must be perpetually on the 
increase.' ' Left now to himself malice could not wish him a 
worse adviser, he resolves on a desperate project.' 'The 
badness of the times as the vulgar phrase expresses a scene 
of distress frequently depends more on those who govern the 
ship, than on the weather.' ' As in riper years all unreason- 
able returns to the levity of youth ought to be avoided an 
admonition which equally belongs to both the sexes, still 
more are we to guard against those intemperate indulgences 
of pleasure to which the young are unhappily prone.' 
' I would not enter on my list of friends 
Though graced with polished manners and fine sense, 
Yet wanting sensibility, the man 
Who needlessly sets foot upon a worm.' 
* Let us since life can little more supply 
Than just to look about us, and to die 
Expatiate free o'er all this scene of man ; 
A mighty maze ! but not without a plan.' 
8 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



THE BRACKET. 



Brackets or crotchets [ ], like parenthetical marks, generally 
include explanatory remarks which do not necessarily belong 
to the subject, though they may be necessary to a right under- 
standing of it ; as, ' It was resolved, that we [the captain and 
myself] should set out the next morning.' 



THE APOSTROPHE. 

The apostrophe [ ' ] is distinguished from the comma only 
by being placed above the line ; but its uses are altogether 
different. It is used to abbreviate or shorten a word ; as, 

* E'er, ne'er, 't was.' It is also used to mark the possessive 
case of nouns ; as, '■ The people's rights.' 

Exercises for the Black-board. 
Write and punctuate the following : ' Lets go in, gentlemen.' 

* Thourt a good boy.' ' Thats my teacher.' ' Tis so.' ' 111 
do it.' *Ive lost a day.' 'Im here.' 'Id share it with 
thee.' * Theres a mistake about it.' * Hes always so positive.' 

* Twill please me much.' * Far oer the mountain.' ' Mongst 
horrid shapes.' ' Whereer the rude and moss-grown beech 
oercanopies the glade.' * Moses laws were admirably adapted 
to the condition of the Jews.' ' Jesus instructions are adapted 
to all times and conditions.' ' I have been to visit Mr. Jacobs 
school, in which Sophocles Grammar is used.' ' Blest be the 
day I scaped the wrangling crew, from Pyrrhos maze and 
Epicurus sty.' 

Remark. ►— These last examples suppose the scholar to 
be acquainted with the grammatical use of the possessive 
case, and the manner of applying the sign. 



THE CARET. 



The caret [a] is used to show where some word or words, 
letter or letters, which have been left out by mistake, should 

her p 

be inserted; as, *Jane loves studies.' ' Disapointments and 

are '^^ 

trials often blessings in disguise. 



PUNCTUATION. 87 



THE QUOTATION. 

DouUe cominas [" "], and sometimes single commas \J '], 
are used as signs of quotation. These marks include words 
and passages taken from some other author in his own words ; 
as, " The proper study of mankind is man." Lord Bacon says, 
that '• knowledge is power.* 

Exercises for the Black-hoard. 

Write and 'punctuate the following: A powerful and un- 
bridled imagination, says Sir Walter Scott, is the author and 
architect of its own disappointment. Coleridge speaks of 
imagination as the power which first unsensualizes the mind ; 
and Cecil declares it to be the grand organ whereby truth 
can make successful approaches to the mind. — In the New 
Testament, we learn that Jesus said to the Jews, Is it not 
written in your law, — I said, Ye are gods ? — Godwin says, 
that men should not come too near each other, or touch in too 
many points. Excessive familiarity is the bane of social 
happiness. — At my coming in, he said, You and the physician 
are come too late. 

Remark. — The quotation marks, being placed above the 
line, are easily distinguished from commas ; those preceding a 
quotation are inverted. A quotation contained within another 
is generally marked by two single commas. 



THE INDEX. 



The index or hand [i^] points to some remarkable pas- 
sage ; as, ' i^' All orders promptly attended to.' 



THE PARAGRAPH. 



The paragraph [If] denotes the beginning of a new subject, 
or a sentence not connected with the foregoing. It is seldom 
used, except in the Scriptures and some old books. It is, also, 
occasionally employed as a reference. 



88 THE BLACK-BOARD. 



THE SECTION. 



The section [§] is used, as in Locke's Essay on the Human 
Understanding, and in law books, to mark the division of a 
subject or chapter, into less parts or portions. 



THE ELLIPSIS, OR BLANK. 



The ellipsis, or hlanh, is generally intimated by a succession 

of asterisks or stars [***], or by a long line or dash [ ]. 

It is used when some letters in a word, or some words in a 
verse or sentence, are omitted ; as, ' The k — g is a most con- 
summate ****.' 



THE DIURESIS. 



The diceresis [ •• ] consists of two points placed over the 
latter of two vowels which would otherwise make a diphthong, 
and parts them into two syllables ; as, * Orthoepy.' 



THE BRACE. 

The brace [,^a^«,] is used in poetry, at the end of a triplet, 
or three lines which have the same rhyme ; and also to connect 
a number of words with one common term ; as, 
* The asterisk*, dagger fj ^ 

■ are used for marginal references.' 



Double dagger J, 

Parallel lines ||, 

Figures and letters, 

From ostentation as from weakness 
It stands like the cerulean arch we see 
Majestic in its own simplicity, 



free,") 
see, y 



USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 



Rule. — Every sentence should begin with a capital letter ; 
also every line of poetry ; all appellations of the Deity ; proper 
names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, lakes, 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 89 

ships, &c. ; all adjectives derived from proper names ; the first 
word of every direct quotation ; the titles of books ; the pro- 
noun I, and the interjection 0. 

Exercises for the Black-hoard, 

Write the following examples correctly, according to the 
preceding rule : ' in the flourishing periods of athens and rome, 
eloquence was poAver. it was at once the instrument and the 
spur to ambition, the talent of public speaking was the key to 
the highest dignities ; the passport to the supreme dominion 
of the state, the rod of hermes was the sceptre of empire ; the 
voice of oratory was the thunder of jupiter.' 

' no eye beheld when william plunged 
young edmund in the stream ; 
no human ear, but william's, heard 
young edmund's drowning scream.' 

*pope, in his universal prayer, calls the lord god almighty, 
"Jehovah, jove, or lord." ' we generally speak of the supreme 
being as the creator, the governor, the preserver, and the father 
of mankind.' ' it is difficult to distinguish between a native 
american and a wellbred englishman.' 'new england and 
old england are very much alike.' 'among the countries 
in europe, france and england take the lead, their capitals, 
paris and london, are two of the finest cities on the other side 
of the atlantic' ' were i to travel in europe, i should wish to 
understand the french, the german, the Spanish, and the Italian 
languages.' ' i have seen so much, in books, of paternoster row, 
of lincoln's inn, of high street, — and read so much in geogra- 
phy, about the red sea, the british channel, the frith of forth, 
the lake of geneva, the thames, the alps, &c., — and heard so 
much about their victoria ships and iron steamers, — that, in 
my own imagination, i have formed a pretty good opinion 
how all these things look.' ' i have read shakspeare's plays, 
goldsmith's history, and sheridan knowles' tragedy, virginius.' 
* oh ! for a closer walk with god ! ' ' o thou that roUest above, 
round as the shield of my fathers ! whence are thy beams, o 
sun ! thy everlasting light ? ' 

Remark. — It was formerly customary to use capital letters 
with greater frequency, and with less discrimination, than 
it is at the present day. And, even now, ' good usage ' is some- 
8* 



90 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

what divided. Titles of honor and respect, — words personi- 
fied, or of primary importance, -— are generally begun with 
capitals ; ' His Excellency,' ' His Honor ;' ' The Rebellion/ 
' The Revolution j' ' Better to sit in Freedom's hall.' 



VERSIFICATION. 



There are various kinds of poetry which come under the 
head of Versification ; such as the Ejpic^ the Lyric, the Dra- 
matic, &c. These cannot always be easily distinguished. 
They run into each other, precisely like colors : in their strong 
tints, they are easily distinguished ; but are susceptible of so 
much variety, and of so many different forms, that we cannot 
always say where one species ends and another begins. 

Epic poetry usually comprises narrations of past scenes and 
actions. When it describes the exploits of a hero, as noble, 
brave, and magnanimous, it is called Heroic poetry.* When it 
describes the scenes and incidents of rural or country life, it is 
called joastora^ poetry. When it is used for the purpose of teach- 
ing, and giving moral instruction, it is called didactic poetry. 

Lyric poetry is adapted to musical instruments, such as the 
lyre or harp. When fitted to be sung, and employed for 
devotional purposes, it is called sacred poetry. When it con- 
sists of plaintive or mournful strains, calculated to produce 
sorrow, it is called elegiac poetry. 

Dramatic poetry consists of a historic poem or play, adapted 
to scenic representation. When fitted to produce mirth- 
ful jollity or merriment, it is called cojnic poetry. When it 
terminates in a disastrous or mournful event, it is called tragic 
poetry. When made up of merry and serious events, it is 
called tragi-comic poetry. 

Application. 

What are the principal kinds of poetry ? Can they always 
be easily distinguished ? Why not ? — What is epic poetry ? 

* Blank-verse is generally heroic verse of five feet, but always without 
rhyme. 



VEKSIFICATION. 91 

When Is it called 7i<?roic ? When pastoral ? When didactic? 
— What is Ip'ic poetry ? When is it called sacred ? When 
elegiac f — What is dramatic poetry ? When is it called 
comic ? When tragic ? When tragi-comic ? 

SCANNING. 

Scanning is the division of verses into a certain number of 
feet. All poetic feet consist of two or three syllables, either 
accented or unaccented. The breve (") denotes a short quan- 
tity, and the hyphen (~ ) a long one. The feet most commonly 
used in English are the Trochee, the Iambus, and the Ana- 
pcest. The other kinds of feet are occasionally introduced 
for the sake of variety. 



OETIC FEET. 

Dissyllable. Trisyllable. 

A Trochee, - w A Dactyle, - « u 

An Iambus, w - An Amphibrach, « - w 

A Spondee, ^ - An Anapaest, w w - 

A Pyrrhic, w w A Tribrach, w w w 

A METRICAL GAMUT FOR THE TROCHEE. 

Tumty I tumty | tumty | tum, 
Tumty I tumty | tumty | tum, 
Tumty- I tumty | tumty | tum, 
Tumty I tumty | tumty | tum. 

EXAMPLE OF THE TROCHEE. 

Safely | through an | other | week 
God has I brought us | on our | way ; 

Let us ^ now a | blessing | seek, 

Waiting I *in his | courts to | day, — 

Day of I all the | week the | best. 
Emblem | *of e | ternal | rest. 

* Pyrrhic feet. 



92 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

While we | seek sup | plies of | grace, 

Through the | dear Re | deemer's | name, 

Show thy I recon | oiling | face, 

Take a | way our | sin and | shame ; 

From our | worldly | cares set | free, 

May we | rest this | day in | thee. 

Here we | come thy j name to | praise ; 

Let us I feel thy | presence |, near ; 
May thy | glory | meet our | eyes, 

While we | in thy | house ap | pear ; 
Here af [ ford us, | Lord, a | taste 
*Df our I ever | lasting | feast. 

May the | gospel's | joyful | sound 
Conquer | sinners, | comfort | saints, 

Make the | fruits of | grace a | bound, 
Bring re | lief from | all com | plaints : 

Thus let I all our | sabbaths | prove, 

Till we I join the | church a | bo»e. Newton, 

A METRICAL GAMUT FOR THE IAMBUS. 

Titum I titum | titum | titum, 
Titum I titiim | tittim ; 
Titum I titum | titum [ titum, 
Titum I titiim I titum. 



EXAMPLE OF THE lASIBUS. 

When all | thy mer | cies, O | my God, 

My- ris | ing soul | surveys. 
Transport | ed with | the view j I 'm lost 

In won I der, love, | and praise*" 

Unnum | bered com ] forts on | my soul 
Thy ten | der care | bestowed, 

Before | my in | fant heart | conceived 
From whom | thSse com | forts flowed. 



VERSIFICATION. '93 

. Ten thou | sand thou | sand prec | ious gifts 
My dai | ly thanks | employ ; 
Nor IS I the least | a cheer | ful heart, 
That tastes | those gifts [ with joy. 

Through ev' | ry pe | riod of | my life, 

Thy good | ness I '11 | pursue ; 
And af I ter death, | in dis | tant worlds. 

The glo I rious theme | renew. Addison, 

A METRICAL GAMUT FOR THE ANAPiEST. 

Titittim I tititum | tititum | tititum, 
Tititum I tititum j tititum; 
Tititum I tititum | tititum | tititum, 
Tititum I tititum j tititum. 

EXAMPLE OF THE ANAP^ST. 

*The rose | had been washed, | *just washed | in a shower, 

* Which Ma | ry to An | na conveyed ; 
*The plen | tiful moist ] ure encum ] bered the flower, 

=^And weighed | down its beau | tif iil head. 

*The cup I was all filled, | and the leaves | were all wet, 

And it seemed, | to a fan | ciftd view, 
*To weep ] for the buds | it had left | with regret. 

On the flour | ishing bush | where it grew. 

*I hast I ily seized | it, unfit | as it was 

For a nose | gay, so drip j ping and drowned ; 

*And swing | ing it rude | ly, too rude | ly, alas ! 
I snapped | it — it fell | to the ground. 

*And such, | I exclaimed, | is the pit | iless part, 

*Some act | by the del | icate mind, 
*Regard | less of wring | ing and break | ing a heart, 

*Alread | y to sor | row resigned. 

* Iambic feet. 



94 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

*This el I egant rose, | had I shak | en it less, 

Might have bloomed | with its own | er awhile ; 
And the tear | that is wiped j with a lit | tie address, 
May be fol | lowed, perhaps, | by a smile. Cowper, 

Application. 

What is scanning'^ How many syllables are there in a 
foot ? How many kinds of feet ? and what are they called ? 
Will you describe them? Write on the black-board the 
Metrical gamut for the Trochee ; and let all the scholars prac- 
tise upon it, by repeating it in concert, till they learn the dif- 
ference between a long and a short quantity, — an accented 
and an unaccented syllable. Then write on the black-board 
the Example of the Trochee ; and let them practise in like 
manner, upon that. Pursue the same course with the Iambus 
and the Anapcest. Then take other pieces of poetry, and let 
the scholars practise upon them. By a little attention to the 
subject of scanning, the other varieties of feet and measure 
may be easily taught. For rules determining the quantity of 
syllables, see Goldsbury's ' Sequel,' page 63. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

The analysis of a sentence consists in dividing it into the 
several parts of which it is composed, and pointing out their 
mutual relations. For an explanation of phrases and sen- 
tences, see Goldsbury's ' Grammar,' page 86, and ' Sequel' to 
the same, page 65. 

Every sentence has, at least, one subject and one predicate. 
The subject is that of which something is affirmed. The 
predicate affirms something of its subject ; as, ' Good scholars 
learn their lessons well.' Here, * good scholars * is the sub- 
ject, and 'learn their lessons well' is the predicate. 

SUBJECT. 

The subject of every sentence is either grammatical or 
logical. The grammatical subject is either some noun, or 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 95 

some word or phrase used instead of a noun. The logical 
subject consists of the grammatical subject, with its various 
modifications ; as, ^Scholars of industrious habits become wise.' 
Here, ' scholars ' is the grammatical, and ' scholars of indus- 
trious habits,' the logical subject. 

The subject of a sentence is either simple or compound. 

A simple subject is a single noun, or a word standing for a 
noun, either alone or variously modified ; as, *■ Life is short ;* 
^The longest life of man is short.' 

A compound subject consists of two or more simple sub- 
jects, to which one predicate belongs ; as, ' The girls and boys 
have recited.' 

Note. — It is proper to remark, that words are said to 
modify or limit others, when they serve to explain, describe, 
enlarge, restrict, or otherwise qualify their meaning ; and also, 
that, if the grammatical subject is not modified, it is the same 
as the logical subject. 

PREDICATE. 

The predicate, like the subject, is either grammatical or 
logical. The grammatical predicate is the verb which asserts 
or afiirms something of its subject. The logical predicate 
consists of the grammatical predicate with its various modifi- 
cations ; as, ' The Legislature Jiave elected Daniel Webster to 
the Senate of the United States.^ Here, ' have elected ' is the 
grammatical, and ' have elected Daniel Webster to the Senate 
of the United States,' the logical predicate. 

The predicate also, like the subject, is either simple or 
compound. 

A simple predicate is one which contains a single finite 
verb ; as, ' The scholar studies' 

A compound predicate consists of two or more simple pre- 
dicates belonging to the same subject ; as, ' The scholar studies 
and learns.' 

Note. — When the grammatical predicate is not modified, 
it is the same as the logical predicate. 

SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

In analyzing a simple sentence, the first thing to be done is 
to divide it into its logical subject and predicate. 



96 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

In analyzing the logical subject, the grammatical subject 
should first be pointed out, then the words which modify or 
limit it, and then the words which modify or limit them, and 
so on, till the logical subject is exhausted. 

In analyzing the logical predicate, the grammatical predi- 
cate should first be pointed out, then the words which modify 
or limit it, and then the words which modify or limit them, 
and so on, till the logical predicate is exhausted. 

COMPOUND SENTENCE. 

In analyzing a compound sentence, it should first be re- 
solved into the simple sentences of which it is composed. It 
should then be analyzed in the manner above described ; and 
the rules for the agreement and government of words should 
be given. 

Example 1. 

The analysis of a simple sentence. — ^ A plain understand- 
ing is often joined with great worth.' Here, * a plain under- 
standing ' is the logical subject ; and ' is often joined with great 
worth,' is the logical predicate. 

The grammatical subject is 'understanding.' This is modi- 
fied by '■ plain,' and limited by * a.' 

The grammatical predicate is * is joined.' This is modified 
by * often,' and limited by the phrase 'with great worth.' 
' With ' shows the relation between ' is joined ' and ' worth.' 
* Great' describes 'worth ;' and 'worth' is governed by 'with.' 

Example 2. 

The analysis of a compound sentence. — ' Men of learning 
are almost always poor, because they do not set their hearts 
upon riches.' This sentence is thus resolved into simple sen- 
tences. Primary sentence : ' Men of learning are almost 
always poor.' Secondary sentence : ' They do not set their 
hearts upon riches.' The latter sentence depends upon the 
former ; and ' because ' is the connective. 

In the primary sentence, ' men of learning ' is the logical 
subject ; and ' are almost alway^oor,' the logical predicate. 

The grammatical subject is 'men.' This is limited by the 
phrase ' of learning.' ' Of shows the relation between ' men* 
and ' learning ;' and ' learning ' is governed by ' of.' 

The grammatical predicate is 'are.' 'Almost' modifies 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 97 

* always;' 'always' modifies 'poor;' and 'poor' describes 

* men.' 

In tlie secondary sentence, ' they ' is both the logical and 
the grammatical subject ; and ' do not set their hearts upon 
riches,' is the logical predicate. 

The grammatical predicate is ' do set.' This is modified by 

* not,' and limited by ' their hearts,' and by the phrase ' upon 
riches.' ' Their ' is governed by ' hearts,' and relates to ' men.' 

* Hearts ' is governed by ' do set.' ' Upon' shows the relation 
between ' do set ' and ' riches ;' and ' riches ' is governed by 

* upon.' 

Miscellaneous Examples for Practice on the Black-hoard 
or Slate. 

The school of experience teaches many useful lessons. 

A great portion of human evils, is created by ourselves. 

Compassion prompts us to relieve the wants of others. 

In youth, the habits of industry are most easily acquired. 

The spirit of true religion is social, kind, and cheerfuL 

The contented mind spreads ease and cheerfulness around it. 

Opportunities occur daily for strengthening the habits of 
virtue. 

The day was calm, and the scene delightful. 

William was respected, because he was upright and obliging. 

If greatness flatters our vanity, it multiplies our dangers. 

I will submit, for submission brings peace. 

The doctor arrived, but he came too late. 

Piety and virtue are very becoming in the young. 

The fool hath said in his heart, that there is no God. 

When a person is idle, he is almost always tempted to do 
wrong. 

JVote. — Those who wish to pursue the subject further, are 
referred to a work, now in press, by Mr. S. S. Greene, a 
teacher in one of the Boston schools. Not having seen the 
whole work, I know comparatively little about it, except that 
it will contam about one hundred and fifty pages, and be ac- 
companied with a chart ; but, from my knowledge of its author, 
I have formed high expectations of it. 
9 



METHODS OF TEACHING ARITHMETIC. 



There are two methods of teaching Arithmetic, — the 
analytic and the synthetic. 

The analytic method consists in resolving a compound into 
its several parts or first principles. It goes into an examina- 
tion of particulars ; and, by a direct application of first prin- 
ciples, it leads to the most important results. This method is 
sometimes called induction. The honor of first introducing 
it into this country, is due to Warren Colburn, the author of 
the ' First Lessons.' 

The synthetic method consists in uniting sundered parts into 
one whole. It lays down general principles or rules, explains 
their use, and requires the scholar to follow them implicitly. 
This method is used for imparting knowledge ; the analytic 
method, for acquiring it. Both may be used in the same pro- 
cess, to great advantage. 

One great error in teaching Arithmetic, has been, and still 
is, to allow scholars to begin at the wrong place. Instead of 
requiring them to begin at numeration, or even at addition, 
they have frequently been permitted to pass over these first 
and fundamental principles, and to begin at multiplication. 
The numeration and addition tables have been almost entirely 
displaced by the multiplication table. Whereas, scholars 
should always begin at numeration^ and be made so thoroughly 
acquainted with the simple and local value of numbers, as to 
be able to read any number of figures at first sight. They 
should then be so thoroughly drilled in the addition and com- 
bination of numbers, as to be able to add up a column of fig- 
ures with as much ease and readiness, as they can read a line 
across a page, in plain English. They will then be prepared 
for the succeeding rules. Every rule, and the reasons on 
which it is founded, should be thoroughly understood, before 
proceeding to other rules. In this way, they will become in- 
terested in the study, and be prepared to exercise their reason 
in solving the most difiicult questions. 



ARITHMETIC. 



99 



Application. 
What two methods are there in teaching arithmetic? — 
What is the analytic method ? How does it accomplish its 
object ? What is it sometimes called ? Who first introduced 
it into this country ? — What is the synthetic method ? How 
does it accomplish its object ? May these two methods be 
united in the same process ? — What has been an error in 
teaching arithmetic ? Where have scholars commenced the 
study ? Where should they begin ? To what extent should 
they be drilled in numeration ? — in addition ? For what will 
they then be prepared ? — Must every rule be understood ? — ^ 
How are scholars to become interested in the study ? 



NUMERATION. 

Numeration teaches how to express the value of numbers 
by certain characters or figures. All numbers are expressed 
by the ten following Arabic characters or figures : 0, 1, 2, 3, 
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Any significant figure placed to the left of 
another, expresses ten times the quantity that it would express, 
if it occupied the place of the latter. Hense arises the dis- 
tinction between the simple and local value of figures. 



NUMERATION OF WHOLE NUMBERS. 



U r^ 






•^ -2 3 3 2 :g § S g S 

a "S a .2 -2 P i2 
I s 3 g 3 ^ -g 

^ Z^^*^* i^r'^ <^^^^N (^.Ni^ />,/>^ ^^•^ /^.A^ <^>N^N '^A.^N /^.A^N /^,/^^\ /^>^^S 

6.789.123.456.789.123.456.789.123.456.789.123.456 



. o 



• o 



"C^- ' 



.. _ o 2'So £Bo 2^^ 2'! 

age age age sgc ogfl sga sgc sgS sgo sga agS sgS agS sga 
WhP WHP WEHp WhP a^P W^P KhP KhP WhP KhP WhP WhP WhP WhP 



o £"50 gJ'So £'3o 2=30 g-go 2"5o g^so £oo g'S 



Application. 
Write the whole numbers on the black-board, and point 
them off into periods of three figures each, commencing at 



100 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

the right hand. Then, with the pointer, direct the attention 
of the pupils to each period of the numbers, and teach them 
to enumerate them by periods ; first from right to left, and 
then from left to right. When they have learned perfectly 
the enumeration by periods, teach them to enumerate or fill up 
each period with units, tens^ hundreds, of each denomination ; 
and, at the same time, explain the simple and local value of 



the figures. 

NUMERATION OF DECIMALS. 




A 1 .1 J. 11 11 A 

.^|l li li III ill Hi 11^ 

.5 Is iBi §a^ ga™ seg %al 3a| =«S 

l.iiliellllli|lillillSlil|i 

CSgc §3^ §32 S3:3 gs-C §33 §33 §32 S =3 £• 

KhP hWh HKS HKM hWh t^WO? HKC? HWt» HSm 
789,123.456.789.123.456.789.123.456. 


1 S 

li J 

Hi III 
ill ill 

7 8 9.123 


Application. 





Write the table of decimals on the black-board, and, for 
convenience, point them off into periods of three figures each, 
commencing at the right hand, to express the numerator of 
the fraction. Then, with the pointer, teach the pupils to enu- 
merate the decimals both ways, first decimally, from left to 
right ; and then, as in whole numbers, from right to left. Then 
teach them to read them, like whole numbers, pronouncing the 
name of the last denomination mentioned in the decimal enu- 
meration, for the denominator of the fraction ; and, at the 
same time, explain to them what the denominator of a deci- 
mal fraction is, and must always be. 



ADDITION. 



Take the nine digits, and write them on the black-board in 
an inverse order, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, so as to have the 
smallest figure come on the right, with which to begin the 
operation. Under each of the nine digits, write the figure 2, 



ARITHMETIC* 101 

and draw a line underneath. Let the figure 2 be now added 
and re-added, both ways, to each of the nine digits, till their 
simple combinations are perfectly learned. Do the vsame 
thing with the figure 3, the figure 4, the figure 5, and so on, till 
all the figures have been added and re-added to every other 
figure, and their simple comhinations are perfectly understood. 



Examples, 



2. 



987654321 987654321 
222222222 333333338 



3. 4. 

987654321 987654321 
444444444 555555555 



5. 6. 

987654321 987654321 
666666666 777777777 



7. 8. 

987654321 9 87654321 
888888888 999999999 



The facility with which these combinations are learned, 
will depend very much upon the skill of the teacher. In the 
foregoing examples, the figures increase regularly from right 
to left, and diminish in the same manner from left to right. 
Next, without regard to order, from right to left, and vice 
versa from left to right, let the teacher select any two num- 
bers, and require the pupil to give the amount ; and so pro- 
ceed through all the above examples. 

Let other examples be given. Let the figures be selected 
without regard to order, and placed in any order which the 
teacher chooses. 

9* 



102 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

Mxamples. 
1. 2. 

987654321 945876352 

584397854 763985497 



When scholars have taken this first step, and learned well 
all the simple combinations, they will be prepared to take 
another. Let them next be required to write simple and 
combined numbers over each other on the black-board. Take, 
for example, 4 and 5, 14 and 5, 24 and 5, 34 and 5, and so 
on, to any extent which the teacher chooses. 

Example. 

55555555555 
104 94 84 74 64 54 44 34 24 14 4 



Let the teacher then direct the attention of his pupils to the 
right-hand figures, and say, how many are 4 and 5 ? Ans. 9, 
(a simple combination.) — How many are 14 and 5 ? Ans. 
19 ; because 4 and 5 are 9, and 10 units added, make 19. — < 
How many are 24 and 5 ? Aiis. 29, because 4 and 5 are 9, 
and 20 units added, make 29.— How many are 34 and 5 ? 
Ans. 39, because 4 and 5 are 9, and 30 units added, make 
39. — Pursue the same course with the remaining figures, till 
their combination is perfectly understood. Then take two 
other figures, and pursue the same course ; and then two 
others, and so on, till the combination of all the figures is well 
understood. Great care should be taken to make scholars 
thoroughly understand the combination of figures, — that any 
two figures being added to a third, always produce a certain 
result, which may be known by referring to the simple 
combination. 

Explanation of the Rule. 

The rule of addition is founded on the axiom, that ' the 
whole is equal to the sum of all its parts.' To explain this, 
let the numbers 675, 325, 246, 156, be decomposed, and their 
several parts be added. 



ARITHMETIC. 103 



Operation. 



The first is 000+ 70+ bz=z 075 

The second is 300+ 20+ 5= 325 

The third is 200+ 40+ 6= 246 

The fourth is 100+ 50+ 6=:= 156 



The whole is 1200+180+22^:1402 

Here it will be seen, that the column of units amounts to 
22 units. The column of tens amounts to 180 units, or 18 
tens. The column of hundreds amounts to 1200 units, 120 
tens, or 12 hundreds. But to save the trouble of setting down 
and adding up so many separate amounts, the left hand figure 
is carried on, and united immediately with the next column. 

One method of proving Addition, 

Set the excess of nines, in each row of figures, to the right 
of its row ; and if the excess of nines in the sum's result, and 
the column made by setting out the several excesses, are alike, 
the work is riorht. 



Example. 

6789 6 7896789 
456789456789 
123456123456 
918273645578 

2177487122612 



Mte. — The figure 9 has a peculiar property, which, except 
3, belongs to no other figure, viz. that any number divided by 
9, will leave the same remainder as the sum of its figures 
divided by 9. 

Let the following sums be now written on the black-board,' 
and added aloud without the assistance of the teacher ; and 
let the reason of carrying for tens be further explained. 



104 THE BLACK-BOARD. 



1. 

123456789 
234567891 
345678912 
456789123 
567891234 
678912345 
789123456 
891234567 
912345678 









2. 










7 


8 


9 


7 8 


9 


7 


8 


9 


8 


9 


7 


8 9 


7 


8 


9 


7 


9 


7 


8 


9 7 


8 


9 


7 


8 


4 5 


6 


4 5 


6 


4 5 


6 


5 


6 


4 5 6 4 5 


6 


4 


6 


4 5 


6 4 


5 


6 


4 5 


1 


2 


3 


4 5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


9 


8 


7 


6 5 


4 


3 


2 


1 


1 


2 


3 


4 5 


6 


7 


8 


9 



SUBTRACTION. 



First, let the pupils be exercised in the simple difference 
of numbers. For this purpose, write the following examples | 
on the black-board. 



9 8 7 6 5 4 3 
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 


9 8 7 6 5 4 
3 3 3 3 3 3 


3. 

98 7 65 9876 
44444 5555 


5. 6. 

9 8 7 9 8 
6 6 6 7 7 



Let the teacher then direct their attention to each figure 
in the lower line, in each of the examples, and ask the differ- 
ence between it and the figure above it. Let the questions be 
asked, first from right to left, and then from left to right. 

Then take the nine digits, and write them on the black- 
board in an inverse order, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, so as to have 
the smallest figure come on the right, with which to begin the 
operation. Under each of the nine digits, write the figure 2, 
and draw a line underneath ; then the figure 3, and draw a 
line underneath ; and so on, till the examples are completed. 



ARITHMETIC. 



105 



Examples, 

1. 2. 

987654321 987654321 
222222222 333333333 



987654321 987654321 
444444444 555555555 



5. 6. 

987654321 987654321 
666666666 111111111 



1 8. 

987654321 987654321 
888888888 99999999 



Let the teacher then direct the attention of his pupils to 
each figure in the lower line, in each of the examples, ask 
the appropriate questions, and explain the reason of borrow- 
ing 10, and carrying 1 to pay the debt. 

Explanation of the Rule. 

The rule of Subtraction is founded on the axiom, that ^ the 
sum of the differences of all the similar parts, is equal to the 
differences of the whole.' To illustrate this, let the numbers 
54326 and 23437 be decomposed, and their several parts be 
subtracted. 

Operation, 

The first is 50000-f-4000-|-300+20+6r=54326 
The second is 20000+3000+4004-304-7=23437 



. The difference is 30000+0000+800+80+9=30889 

I 



106 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

Here it will be seen, that borrowing from a preceding place 
to increase an upper place, when its correspondent lower place 
is the largest, is only resolving the upper number into such 
parts as are each greater than, or equal to, the similar parts 
of the less number. 

We begin at the right hand, and finding that we can not 
take 7 from 6, we borrow 10 from 20, and add it to 6, which 
make 16. From 16 we take 7, and set down 9. As 10 are 
borrowed from 20, there are 10 left. We can not take 30 
from 10 ; we therefore borrow 100 from 300, and add it to 
10, making 110, from which we take 30, and set down 80; 
and so on through the whole. 

In borrowing to add to an upper figure or place, instead of 
considering the next upper figure or place diminished, it has 
been found convenient to increase the next lower figure or 
place, which produces the same result. 

One method of proving Subtraction, 

Cast out the nines from the minuend, and place the excess 
at the right hand. Then cast out the nines from the sub- 
trahend and remainder, and add their excesses together ; and, 
if the work be right, the excess of the nines in their sum will 
be the same as the excess of the nines in the minuend. 

Example. 

87654893214567 .... 3, excess. 
49321987654321 .... 1,^ 

excesses. 



38332905560246 .... 2, 

sum 3, excess. 



MULTIPLICATION. 



The rule of Multiplication is founded on the principle, that 
* the multiplicand is taken as many times as there are units in 
the midtiplier.' Either of the two numbers may be made the 
multiplier or multiplicand, and the product will be the same. 



ARITHMETIC. 107 

To illustrate this principle, let the two numbers 432 and 
375 be decomposed, and multiplied together. 

Operation. 

Multiplicand 400+ 30+ 2 = 432 
Multiplier 300+ 70+ 5 = 375 

2000+150+10 = 2160 
28000+2100+140 3024 

120000+ 9000+ 600 1296 

120000+37000+4700+290+10=162000 

Here it will be seen, that we multiplied through, first by 
6 units, then by 7 tens, or 70, and then by 300, placing the 
several products underneath, and adding them up, making 
the whole product 162000. 

Note. — Multiplication may be proved by casting out the 
nines ; and ' the work will always prove right when it is so ; 
but it will not always be right when it proves so.' 

Short methods of MuUiplying. 
1. "When the multiplier is any number of nines, annex as 
many ciphers to the right of the multiplicand as there are 
nines in the multiplier ; under this new multiplicand write 
the old one, units under units, and tens under tens, &c. ; and 
then subtract, and the difference is the true answer. 

Example. 
Multiply 456789 by 99999. 

45678900000 
456789 



45678443211 Ans. 



2. When the multiplier is 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, place 
the multiplier at the right of the multiplicand, with the sign 
of multiplication between them ; multiply the multiplicand by 
the unit figure of the multiplier, removing the product one 
place to the right of the multiplicand ; this product and the 
multiplicand make the total product. 



108 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

JExample. 

76548932456789X13 
229646797370367 



995136121938257 Ans. 

3. When the multiplier is 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 
107, 108, 109, multiply by the unit figure of the multiplier, 
and remove the product two places to the right of the multi 
plicand ; and add them together for the product. 

JExample. 

123456789123456789X101 
123456789123456789 



12469135701469135689 Ans. 

4. When the multiplier is 21, 31, 41, &c., to 91, multiply 
by the ten's figure only, of the multiplier, and set the unit 
figure of the product under the place of the tens, and so on ; 
then add them all together, and their sum is the total product. 

Example. 

98765431987654321X21 
197530863975308642 



2074074071740740741 Ans. 



METHOD OP TEACHING THE MULTIPLICATION TABLE. 

The following is an easy and expeditious method of teach- 
ing the multiplication table, and a very successful one to 
secure the attention of pupils. Let the pupils be placed on 
opposite sides of the room, facing each other. Let the 
teacher give out a certain figure, (included in the lesson 
which they have been required to study,) 4 for instance ; and 
let him direct his pupils on one side to say, in concert, 
* 4 times 1 ;' to which the pupils on the opposite side should 
be taught to reply, 'are 4;' and then immediately to put 
back to the opposite division ' 4 times 2 ;' to which they 
should be made to reply ' are 8 ;' and then immediately to 



ARITHMETIC. 109 

put back to the other division ' 4 times 3 ;' to which they 
should reply 'are 12 ;' and so on, till the lesson is completed. 
If, in any instance, a wrong answer be given, the true answer 
should be given by the opposite side, before another figure is 
given out. 

It will be well sometimes to vary this method, by requiring 
the pupils to put out the fij2;ures, while the teacher answers 
them ; and the teacher should frequently answer them wrong, 
and require his pupils to correct him. This method will be 
sure to secure attention* 



DIVISION. 



Division is the reverse of multiplication ; and it may be 
proved by it. To illustrate the principle on which the rule 
is founded, let the dividend G868, and the divisor 34, be 
separated into parts, as follows : — 
Operation^ 

30+4)60004-800+60+8(200-|-2=:202 Ana. 
6000+800 



60+8 
50+8 

Here it will be seen, that 30 is contained in 6000, 200 
times. We then multiply the whole divisor 30+4 by 200, 
which makes 6000+800. These we subtract from the first 
two terms of the dividend, and nothing remains. We then 
bring down the other two terms, and proceed in the same 
manner as before. 



ABBREVIATION Ot ARITHMETICAL OPERATIONS. 

All proportional questions, performed by multiplication and 
division, such as the rules of Three, single and double, direct 
and inverse ; Interest, Discount, Barter, Loss and Gain, Ex- 
change, Reduction, Multiplication and Division of Fractions, 
«&;c., may be abbreviated, and the operation very much short- 
ened. 

10 



110 



THE BLACK^i30ARD. 



I. To abbreviate operations in multiplication and division^ 
draw a perpendicular line, placing the numbers to be mul- 
tiplied on the right, and the numbers by which you are to 
divide, on the left. If there be two equal numbers on each 
side of the line, cross them out, and omit them in the operation. 
If a number on one side of the line divide a number on 
the other side, without a remainder, erase both numbers, and 
substitute, for the larger, the number of times it contains the 
smaller. Then multiply the remainders together, on the 
right, for a dividend ; and the remainders, on the left, for a 
divisor. 

Example. 

Multiply 24 by 12, and divide by 24; then multiply the 
quotient by 9, and divide the product by 6. 







X^ 2 
9 



18 Ans. 

n. To abbreviate operations in fractions, draw a perpen- 
dicular line, placing all those figures which are to be mul- 
tiplied together for a numerator or dividend, on the right of 
the line, and those figures which are to be multiplied together 
for a denominator or divisor, on the left of the line ; also, the 
numerators of fractions, by which a division is to be made, on 
the left. 

JExamples. 

1. Multiply ^, f, I, f, I, f , together. 



^ 


1 


^ 


^ 


4 





$ 


^ 





$ 


7 





7 


1 



\ Ans. 

Here it will be seen, that equals on each side of the line 
are crossed out. When no two numbers remain, one on each 
Bide of the line, capable of being divided by any one figure, 



ARITHMETIC. 



Ill 



multiply the figures on the right of the line for a numerator 
or dividend, and those on the left for a denominator or divisor, 
and the result will be the answer in the lowest terms of the 
fraction. 

2. Divide f of f of I of |, by |. 



4 





/t 


4 


^ 


^ 


$ 


$ 


5 


2 


5 


2 f Ans, 



III. To ahbreviate the operation of all proportional ques- 
tions, draw a perpendicular line, placing the sign of the 
answer on the left, at the top of the line, and that number 
which is of the kind with the answer on the right, at the 
bottom ; and as this number is greater or less than the answer 
sought, place the greater or less of the two remaining numbers 
on the right, and the other on the left, and proceed in all 
respects as required in Direct or Inverse Proportion ; but, 
if it be a question in Double Proportion, place any two of the 
same kind, of the remaining numbers, one on the right and 
the other on the left ; according to directions for Direct or 
Inverse Proportion. 

JExampIes, 

1. If 5 men can build a wall in 24 days, in how many 
days can 15 men build the same ? 

Days. ^ men. 







n 



^4= days. 8 



8 days. Ans. 

2. If 4 men can build 400 rods of wall in 36 days, how 
many rods can 12 men build in 48 days ? 



Rods. 



t^ men. 
4$ X^ 4 
400 rods. 



1600 rods. Ans» 



112 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

Note. — This method of abbreviating or cancelling pro- 
portional terms, has many advantages, and should be well 
understood, both by teachers and pupils. 



CLASSIFICATION IN ARITHMETIC. 

In every large district school, there will necessarily be a 
great variety of studies, and most of the teacher's time will 
be consumed in listening to the different recitations of his 
pupils ; so that he will have but little time left to give positive, 
direct instruction, or to do justice to any subject which he 
pretends to teach. In cases of this kind, — and they are 
very numerous, — the following method maybe adopted to 
advantage. 

Method. 

Let all the pupils studying arithmetic be formed into classes, 
according to their ages, attainments, and abilities; for, un- 
less they are classified in some way, they can not receive sys- 
tematic instruction. Suppose them to be divided into three 
classes, — one in Reduction, — one in Fractions, — and one 
in Interest. Let each class have a certain amount of lesson 
assigned beforehand, to be thoroughly studied, and to be ready 
at a given time. At the time appointed, let the three classes 
be called out at once, and, if practicable, placed on different 
seats, — one class in front of the teacher, — one on his right, — 
and one on his left ; each pupil being provided with his arith- 
metic, slate, and pencil. 

Let the teacher begin with one of the classes, — the class 
in Interest, for instance ; and, after questioning them on the 
principles involved in their lesson, and explaining them fully, 
let him give them a sum to do, either on their slates, or on the 
black-board. 

Then let the teacher turn to the class in Fractions ; and, 
after questioning them, in the same way, on their lesson, and 
explaining the principles fully, let him give them a sum to do, 
either on their slates, or on the black-board. 

Then let the teacher turn to the class in Reduction ; and, 
after questioning them, as above directed, on their lesson, and 
explaining all the principles involved in it, let him give them 
a sum to do, either on their slates, or on the black-board. 



ARITHMETIC. 113 

By this time, the first division — the class in Interest •— 
have probably performed their sura. Let the teacher now 
say to this division, All who have done the sum, shoiv their 
slates. At this command, the whole division, if they have 
■performed the operation, will turn their slates about, and pre- 
sent them to the teacher, with a certain inclination favorable 
for him to see whether the operation is right or wrong. By 
glancing his eye along the line of slates, he will readily detect 
an error in the operation, and challenge the individual whose 
work is supposed to be wrong, requiring him to explain the 
sum, or tell how he did it. As soon as the challenge is ac- 
cepted, — and there is no declining it, — every slate is recov- 
ered to its former position, and every other scholar in the 
division is busily engaged in looking after the individual who 
is attempting to demonstrate the sum. As soon as any one 
discovers a mistake or a diiference in the operation, he raises 
his hand, and the demonstration is stopped till the point at 
issue is settled. As soon as this is done, the demonstration 
proceeds, and, in this way, is carried on to its completion, when 
the teacher gives out another sum to the division. 

Then let the teacher direct his attention to the second 
divisioti, the class in Fractions, and repeat the same words 
as before. All who have done the sum, shoiv their slates. The 
slates being reversed and presented in the manner already 
described, the teacher glances his eye along over the slates, 
and then challenges some one, whose work he suspects to be 
wrong, to demonstrate or explain the sum. As soon as the 
slates are recovered to their former position, the demonstration 
proceeds ; and every other scliolar in the division is watching 
the operation to detect the errors, if there be any. The ques- 
tion being explained to the satisfaction of all, the teacher gives 
out another sum to the division. 

Then let the teacher direct his attention to the third divis~ 
ion, the class in Reduction, and proceed, in all respects, as 
above directed. Let this course be pursued with the three 
divisions, till their lessons are completed. One division, each 
time, if it be the pleasure of the teacher, may perform the 
sums on the black-board. This method of procedure will 
not only save much of the teacher's time, biit excite a deeper 
interest in the minds of his pupils. 
10* 



114 THE BLACK-BOARD. 



MATHEMATICAL DEFINITIONS. 



1. A unit is a single or individual thing, without regard to 
its parts. 

2. An integer is either a unit or a number of units. 

3. A fraction is any part or parts of a unit. 

4. Factors are those numbers from the multiplication of 
■which another number is produced. 

5. A 'product is that number which is produced bj the 
multiplication of two or more factors. 

6. A multiple of a number is the product of that number 
by some integral factor. 

7. A common multiple is a number which can be measured 
by two or more numbers. 

8. An even number is that which can be divided by 2, with- 
out a remainder. 

9. An odd nwnher is that which can not be divided by 2, 
without a remainder. 

10. A measure of a number is one which will divide another 
number, without a remainder. 

11. A common measure is a number which will divide two 
or more numbers, without a remainder. 

12. A composite number is one produced by the multipli- 
cation of two or more numbers. 

13. A prime number is that which can be measured only by 
itself or by unity; as, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, &c. 
Two or more numbers having no common divisor or measure 
greater than unity, are prime to each other; as, 8, 9, 11, 
13, 17, &c. 

14. The aliquot parts of a number are the parts by which 
it is measured, or into which it can be divided. 

15. A square number is the product of a number multiplied 
by itself. 

16. The square root is the number which, being multiplied 
by itself, produces the square number. 

17. A cube is the product of a number twice multiplied by 
itself. 

18. The cube root is the number which, being twice multi- 
plied by itself, produces the cube. 

19. Commensurable numbers are such as have each the 
same common divisor. 



ARiTHMEtlC. 115 

20. Incommensurable numbers are sucli as have no com- 
mon divisor. 

21. The ni\i power of a number is the product of n equal 
factors, — n representing any integral number whatever. 

22. The exponent^ or index of a power, is that number by 
which the power is expressed. 

23. The root of a power is that number, from the continued 
multiplication of which a certain number of times into itself, 
the power is produced. 

24. A perfect number is that which is equal to all its aliquot 
parts, divisions, or factors, unity being included. 



PROPERTIES OP NUMBERS. 

1. The product of an even and an odd number, or of two 
even numbers, is even. 

2. The product of any two odd numbers, is an odd number. 

3. The product of any number of odd numbers, is odd. 

4. An odd number cannot be divided by an even number, 
without a remainder. 

5. If an odd number measure an even number, it will also 
measure the half of it. 

6. A square number, or a cube number, arising from an 
even root, is even. 

7. If a square number be either multiplied or divided by a 
number that is not a square, the product or quotient is not 
a square. 

8. If a square number be either multiplied or divided by 
a square, the product or quotient is a square. 

9. The difference between an integral cube and its root, is 
always divisible by 6. 

10. The product, arising from two different prime numbers, 
can not be a square. 

11. The product of no two different numbers, prime to each 
other, can make a square, unless each of those numbers be a 
square. 

12. Every prime number above 2, is either one greater or 
one less than some multiple of 4. 

13. Every prime number above 3, is either one greater or 
one less than some multiple of 6. 



116 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

14. Two quantities respectively equal to a third, are equal 
to each other. 

15. The equal powers or roots of equal quantities, are 
equal. 

16. If equal quantities be added to, subtracted from, multi- 
plied or divided by equal quantities, the sums, remainders, 
products, and quotients, will be respectively equal. 

17. The sura or the difference of any two even numbers, 
is an even number. 

18. The sum or difference of two odd numbers, is even. 

19. The sum of an even number of odd numbers, is even. 

20. The sum. or the difference of an even number and an 
odd number, is odd. 

Application. 

What is a unit ? What is an integer ? Is there any dif- 
ference between them ? Illustrate the subject on the black- 
board. — What is 2. fraction ? What is the difference between 
an integer and a fraction? Illustrate the subject on the 
black-board. — What are factors ? Illustrate the subject on 
the black-board. — Pursue the same course with the other 
* mathematical definitions,' and also with ' the properties of 
numbers,' till the whole subject is thoroughly understood. 



ARITHMETICAL SIGNS. 

1. Two horizontal lines z= signify ' are equal to ; ' as 100 
cents r=r 1 dollar. 

2. A cross -|-, made by a horizontal and a perpendicular 
line crossing each other at right angles, signifies 'added to;* 
as 74-5=12. 

3. A horizontal line — signifies ' subtracted from,' and 
shows that the figure following it is subtracted from the figure 
before it ; as, 1 4 — 6=8. 

4. An inclined cross X, resembling the letter X, signifies 
< multiplied by;' as, 4X5=20. 

5. A horizontal line -H, with a point above and another 
below it, signifies ' divided by,' and shows that the figure be- 
fore it is divided by the figure after it; as, 9-f-3:=:6. 

6. Dots placed in the following order : :: : signify pro- 
portion ; as, 2 : 4 : : 8 : 16. 



METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 



The most important part of geography is topographyy or 
the relative situation of places. It is in vain to think of learn- 
ing history or historical geography, without first acquiring a 
knowledge of topography. This can be best acquired by the 
use 0^^ Mitchell's Outline Maps;' but it may be learned from 
the common Atlas, in connection with the slate and the hlach- 
hoard. 

1. Map of the World. 

Let the teacher direct the attention of his pupils to the map 
of the world; and, to illustrate the spherical form of the map, 
let him take an apple, divide it into two equal parts, present 
the convex surface of both parts to his pupils, and thus show 
them, that both sides of a globe or sphere can be represented 
by hemispheres. 

Let him then direct their attention to the grand divisions 
of the globe, land and water. Let him carefully and slowly 
point out the limits of these grand divisions, — the limits of 
the continents, oceans, and countries ; and, while doing this, let 
him give their different names, requiring his pupils to repeat 
them after him, first in concert, and then individually. 

Let him then direct their attention to some of the geo- 
graphical definitions, and point out the subjects on the map. 
The cardinal points, the circles dividing the earth into polar 
hemispheres and zones, and the lines of latitude and longitude, 
should be distinctly pointed out, and their names given and 
explained. These names and explanations should be repeated 
by the pupils, first in concert, and then individually. 

2. Map of North America. 

Let the teacher direct the attention of his pupils to the map 
of North America ; first give its name, and require them to 
repeat it after him ; then its boundaries, and require them to 
do the same. 

Let him then direct their attention to the capes, hays, gulfs, 
mountains, lakes, principal rivers, and political divisions ; 
each of which should be distinctly pointed out, and minutely 
described. Their names should then be given, and their 
positions described, by the pupils, first in concert, and then 
individually. 



118 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

3. Map of the United States. 

Let the teacher direct the attention of his pupils to the map 
of the United States ; first give its name, and require them to 
repeat it after him ; then its boundaries, and require them to 
do the same. 

Let him then direct their attention to the capes, hays, gulfs, 
mountains, lakes, principal rivers, and the several States and 
territories ; each of which should be distinctly pointed out, 
and minutely described. Their names should then be given, 
and their positions described, by the pupils, first in concert, and 
then individually. 

Let this method of instruction be pursued upon each of the 
OTHER MAPS, in their order, till the pupils have been over 
them all. But let it not be supposed, even then, that they 
have acquired a perfect knowledge of topography. Something 
more is necessary for this purpose. They must be required 
to review these maps, and try their skill at drawing on the 
slate or black-board. This exercise is the best and most suc- 
cessful method of communicating instruction in this interesting 
study. Having previously studied the maps thoroughly, let 
them now try their skill at drawing. 

Let the teacher hang up before them the map of the State 
in which the school is kept, and where the pupils reside. In 
an instant, every slate is drawn, and every eye is directed to 
the map. Now commences an interesting exercise. Each 
pupil sketches upon his slate, first the boundaries, next the 
mountains, then the rivers, and other landmarks, upon as 
large a scale as the slate will admit. When he has located 
the capital and chief towns, and given names to the mountains 
and rivers, he has finished his exercise. All the slates are 
then examined, and each performance is criticised. 

Pursue the same course with the maps of other States, and 
of other countries, till the pupils have been over the whole 
globe, and become acquainted with the topography and geog- 
raphy of the earth. 

These exercises should be reviewed, at stated periods, by 
drawings upon the black-board. Those pupils who think 
they have the topography of the country to be described, so 
clearly in their mind, as to be able to present a drawing of it 
upon the black-board, should be requested to do it, without 
the use of the map. Their drawings should then be criticised 
by the whole class, without the aid of the map. 



METHOD OF TEACHING WRITING. 



Writing is an important branch of common school educa- 
tion. It is important to every person in every station and 
pursuit. Without it, the great business of Ufe could not well 
be carried on. It opens a channel of communication between 
different individuals and different nations, connects the human 
family together, and, in its effects, encircles the globe. 

Some have supposed, that a peculiar talent is requisite to 
become a proficient in the art of writing. But it is beHeved 
that every person of common abilities, with proper instruc- 
tion, may become a good writer. To attain to considerable 
skill in this art, a thorough knowledge of the form and pro- 
portion of the letters must be distinctly impressed upon the 
mind, and the power of executing these letters with facility 
must be acquired. To write well, the pupil must have dis- 
tinctly painted on his mind the characters which he intends to 
place on paper; and to execute well, he must acquire the 
habit of forming his letters nicely and gracefully. But it is 
a great mistake to let pupils write whenever they please, and 
just as they please. They will never become good writers in 
this way. The same order should be observed in this exer- 
cise, as in every other. There should be method^ — there 
should be system; and the pupils should be governed and 
guided by it. At present, there is no uniform system ; and, 
as the teachers in our common schools are continually chang- 
ing, the system of instruction, whatever it may be, changes 
also. The consequence is, that but few pupils become good 
writers. Good writing must be legible ; it must also have 
some degree of proportion, regularity, and neatness. 

Mr. George W. Winchester, of Hartford, Conn., has 
published a system of teaching the art of writing on the 
black-board, which, for economy, simplicity, and beauty, is 
perhaps unequalled. By it, even an ordinary teacher can im- 
part uniform and scientific instruction with ease, and in the 
most thorough manner, to a large number of pupils at the 
same time, by placing .himself in such a position as to be seen 
by them all. Besides, his system will produce perfect uni- 



120 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

formity in all the schools where it is used ; and a change of 
teachers will not affect the style of writing or the method of 
instruction. 

Until this system, or some other like it, shall be generally 
introduced, the best recommendation that can be given to 
teachers, is to exercise their pupils more upon the black-board. 
This exercise will give them — what is so essential to good 
writing — the free movement of the arm, the fore-arm, and the 
fingers. It will increase their skill in the form and propor- 
tion of letters, and enable them to execute accurately and 
promptly the examples which are given them to imitate. 
Whether they are to have good or bad examples, well or ill 
arranged, — whether they are to consist of coarse hand or fine, 
capital letters or figures, — must be left to the skill and taste 
of their teachers. Nothing more can be reasonably expected 
of the pupils, than to imitate well the examples which are 
set them. 



MR. WINCHESTER'S METHOD OP TEACHING PENMANSHIP. 

Method of Sitting, and of Holding Paper. 

The left side should slightly incline to the desk, but never 
touch it. The left arm should rest on the desk, seven or 
eight inches from the front edge, and parallel with it, with 
the fingers on the paper. Care should be taken that the 
learner does not lean forward while writing, as this position is 
an obstacle to success, and is highly injurious to the health. 
The feet should be placed firmly upon the floor, and in the 
same direction with the slope of the writing. The weight of 
the body should be supported upon the feet and left arm, and 
the right one should rest lightly on the desk at least half 
way to the elbow, and be kept three or four inches from the 
body. This position gives the v/riter the perfect command of 
his right arm. Some teachers permit the learner to incline 
the right side to the desk, and lean upon the right arm. This 
position should never be allowed. The book should be placed 
in front of the right arm, and parallel with the edge of the 
desk. It should be kept so far from the lower edge of the 
desk, that the arm will always remain on it half way to the 
elbow while writing. 



WRITING* 121 

Pen-holding. 
The next thing that requires attention, is the method of hold- 
ing the pen. It should be held loosely between the thumb and 
the first and second fingers, about three fourths of an inch from 
the point. The thumb should be placed on the pen nearly op- 
posite the lower joint on the forefinger. Tiie upper end of 
the pen-holder should be placed a little forward of the upper 
joint on the forefinger, and, when properly held, point to 
the right shoulder. The httle finger and the one next it should 
bend under about an inch, or sufiiciently far to permit the hand 
to be supported on the end of the nails of these two fingers.* 

Method of giving Instruction. 
A teacher may give instruction to a large number at the 
same time, by placing himself in such a position that he may 
be seen by every member of the class. He should then hold 
the pen as above directed, requiring them to imitate him. This 
exercise should be continued until every individual can hold 
the pen correctly. There are three movements in writing :— 
First, the movement of the arm ; second, that of the fore-arm ; 
and third, that of the fingers and their combinations. These 
movements should be learned while passing through the ex- 
ercises upon the Muscular Disciplinarian, which is next in 
order. This is a card with the various movements engraved 
upon it, over which the learner should pass his pen-holder 
firmly. This exercise will establish a correct method of hold- 
ing and using the pen. It v/ill also strengthen the muscles 
of the hand and arm, and enable the learner to use the pen 
■with the utmost freedom. The use of the Disciplinarian will 
supersede the necessity of very large writing for beginners. 
As it is used for an exercise in pen-holding, and learning the 
various movements, the mind is confined to the exercise until 
the pen is held correctly, and the various movements become 
somewhat familiar before it is called to the formation of letters 
and words. It partially serves the purpose of instructing the 
mind in the formation of letters, while the hand is receiving the 
proper discipline, in connection with the exercise upon the chart, 
which will be alluded to \x\ the proper place. The exercise 
upon the Disciplinarian should become a daily practice, a few 
minutes previous to every writing lesson, until the learner has 
acquired a perfect command of the hand, and can write with 
the greatest facility. 

* See page 131. 
11 



122 




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^ r^ ei o o to 

si-i-i| 

d ci •" <» tS 



:^s^ 



" CO H 






2 fcD° c ^ 9 

o - op's P ©"S 
a 
13 



a o 



P "^ >H tU to <U 

s :S ro § « 53 _g 

t*^ n « ^ o c rt 
fe o « c6=« o 



g- 



O) <W C >- ^ ^ 

- -42 2^ -53 ^ '^S 

-w .S^* . « 03 o «s 

.„ t4_ r^ •— 5^ 2 ^ 






^ ^ &c s^ a^ 



tr«':d«= S S ® 
o) £= « a> f-^ o 



^-=3 



fl d 



>> 03 



r t>_ T^ J3 w 



1^ c 

i « '-5 



to 






»- :;:: S *-< 9 5 



123 




124 THE BLACK-BOAED. 

At times, the whole school may receive instruction in the 
method of sitting, pen-holding, use of Disciplinarian, and form 
of letters ; but, in order to teach a class successfully, those of 
nearly the same attainments should form the class. Scholars 
should be classed as carefully in writing as in any other 
branch of education. It will not be taught with entire success 
until this be done. 

After the class have been properly seated, and provided 
with the Disciplinarian, they should pass the pen-holder firmly 
across the horizontal exercise marked a. (See specimen, pages 
122, 123.) This is a lateral movement of the arm. The arm 
sliould slide lightly across this exercise, from left to right; and 
the hand be supported upon the nails of the little finger, and 
the one next it. 

The teachei' should pass over each exercise first himself, 
holding the Disciplinarian in such a position that the class 
may see it. When the next exercise is to be given, the teacher 
may call the attention of the class to him by striking the 
bell, or by such other means as he may choose. He will then 
give the next exercise, marked h. This is a horizontal oval 
movement, and brings the muscles of the arm into active ex- 
ercise. The class continue this movement until c is given. 
This is an oval oblique movement, designed to bring the mus- 
cles of the fore-arm, wrist, and fingers, into active exercise. 
During this exercise, the arm should rest lightly on the desk 
near the elbow, and the pen-holder be passed briskly over 
the oval in the same manner that we should form the capital 0, 
d is similar to the last, only larger, and is used in thj| same 
manner, e is a straight line in the middle of the oval marked 
d; the holder should be passed briskly over it, from the top 
to the bottom, with the arm stationary upon the desk. / and g 
are movements of the arm and fingers. The under fingers 
should slip across the paper as a movable support ; and this 
movement of the arm forms the hair-line which connects the 
parts of the m and % while the fingers form the upright parts of 
the letter. By using the under fingers as a movable support, 
and sliding them along while writing, the fingers which hold 
the pen are always opposite the letter we are forming ; con- 
sequently, the slopes of the letters will be alike. After the 
exercise has been continued about ten minutes upon the Dis- 
ciplinarian, it may be laid aside until the next lesson, when 
the writing exercise should be given. 



WRITING. 125 

The Primary, and Nos. 1 and 2 of the series of books, are 
designed for theoretical instruction, accompanying which, is a 
Chart fpr every school. This Cluwt is a fac-simile of the 
diiferejii pages of the Primary and First and Second Books; 
and it should be suspended before the school in such a situation 
that every schohir can see it. After the preceding exercise 
has been discontinued for that lesson, the word or letter that 
is to be written by the class should be written on the Chart 
by the teacher, and the method of writing it be clearly ex- 
plained ; after which the copy should be written. The class 
should proceed with the lesson no faster than it is written upon 
the Chart ; consequently, the whole school are writing the 
same word at the same time. The class may be called to the 
next word by striking the bell, or by any other means, when 
the attention of the school is called to the Chart ; at which 
time the teacher should write the next copy on it. All cor- 
rections should be made on the Chart ; and it would be well 
for the teacher to write the words incorrectly, and require the 
class to make the correction. It will be seen that two objects 
are gained, while the scholars are passing through the above 
exercises. While the class are learning to form the letters 
and words upon the theoretical books, the hand is receiving 
a daily exercise upon the Disciplinarian, that will fit it for the 
lessons in practical penmanship in the third and fourth 
books. By referring to the first two books, which are to be 
used for the lessons described above, it will be seen that there 
are always two copies alike. The first has dots under it, to 
be written on, that will give the learner the proper slope, and 
the place where the turns should be made. The second copy 
'is like the first; but there are no dots to guide the learner, and 
he is left to try his powers of imitation. 

The copy should always be written first on the dots half 
down the page, in columns ; then it should be written in the 
same manner in the blank space, leaving the lower half of 
the book blank. (See specimen, page 126.) After the upper 
half of the book is written, the class should turn to the first 
page, and write the lov/er half in the same manner, and with 
great care. The exercise upon the Disciplinarian should 
never be omitted at the commencement of each lesson, as it is 
believed to be the only plan that will successfully prepare the 
hand for business writing, while the mind is at the same time 
receiving the requisite instruction in the formation of letters. 
11* 



126 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



/ / 


\^^A^r\^yy ^yy\^yy\^yy ^jy\ 




\ .'/ 1 1 .-.' 1 1 




1 .y\ \ .:■ \ 1 1 ,-,- 1 1 




1 .;- II.-,- 1 1 .-.■ \ 1 




1 .:■ 11.-/ 1 1 .--■ 1 1 




.;- \ \ // \ 1 .-.- i i 




1 ,:- 1 1 .-,- 1 1 1 .-.' 1 1 




1 .;- 1 \ .'/ 1 .-.- 1 1 




1 ,:■ .;- 1 .--• 1 




1 '/I 1 .'/ 1 1 .-.- 1 1 


/ / 


{.TTA^rTA^yy ^yy\^yy\^yA^yy\ 




1 .:■ \ .-/ \ 1 .-.- 1 1 




1 .;■ \ .'/ \ 1 --.- I 1 




1 .;■ 1 1 .-/ 1 1 .-.' 1 1 




1 -:■ 1 .-,- 1 .-.' 1 1 




1 ,y 1 .-,- 1 1 --.- 1 1 




1 .;- 1 .-/ 1 .-.- 1 1 




.-/ \ \ \ .-/ \ 1 




.;- 1 1 .:- 1 1 .-.' 1 




1 /'I .'■■ \ ■■■■ 1 1 



Half a page of Book 1, as an illustration. 



WRITING. 127 

After the exercises have been correctly written on the first 
and second books, and the proper method of holding and using 
the pen has been acquired, the learner is prepared for prac- 
tical penmanship, which is learned by practice upon the third 
and fourth books. It will be seen that the method of teaching 
proposed, enables the teacher to instruct a large number in 
one class, with a certainty of success. It is not only believed, 
but positively known, that all the requisites of a good penman 
may be attained by this method of instruction, in a short time 
compared with the method of teaching pursued in most schools. 
The strength which the exercise upon the Disciplinarian im- 
parts to the muscles of the hand and arm, enables one to exe- 
cute with great ease and rapidity. The plan will produce 
perfect uniformity in all the schools where it is used, and a 
change of teachers will not affect the style of writing or the 
method of instruction. A change of teachers, heretofore, has 
produced a change in the method of instruction and style of 
writing ; consequently, the improvement from one year to 
another has been hardly perceptible. 

Sentences have been introduced into Nos. 3 and 4 of the 
series of books, that contain several lines across the page, in- 
stead of a single one. The advantage of this plan is, that it 
enables the learner, while in school, to write a handsome let- 
ter, or a bill in a business style, which the former practice of 
repeating a single line failed to do. There are three essential 
qualities requisite in business penmanship: legibility, elegance, 
and expedition. It has been ascertained, by numerous ex- 
periments, that every quality of a good penman may be ac- 
quired by this method of instruction ; that it accomplishes 
much more by supplying the important requisites heretofore 
alluded to ; and that it effects what the prevalent methods of 
teaching can not do. The plan of presenting to the mind of 
the pupil the exact method of making the letter and connect- 
ing the words through the medium of the Chart, while at the 
same time the power of rapid execution is being acquired by 
training the muscles upon the Disciplinarian, is invaluable. 
This practice enables the learner to acquire a habit of holding 
and carrying the pen across the paper correctly and expedi- 
tiously, and to keep the hand in the same position in all parts 
of the word and line. By this process, the hand is kept in 
an upright position, and the under fingers are used as a mova- 
ble support, and a habit of holding and carrying the pen 



128 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

across the paper correctly will be permanently established. 
When the fingers are used, they should not execute the whole 
of the writing; but it should be done by the movements of the 
arm, fore-arm, hand, and fingers. The fingers should form the 
upward and downward strokes of the letters, while the hair- 
lines connecting them should be formed by the lateral move- 
ment of the arm or fore-arm. The wrist should never touch 
the desk while executing business writing, and the under fin- 
gers should glide along from one letter to another. It has 
always been noticed, that every expert penman uses the arni 
and fore-arm as much and as readily as he does the fingers ; 
and that the more rapid the execution, the greater is the use 
made of the arm. The reason of this is obvious. The mus- 
cles of the arm, being much stronger than those of the fingers 
and thumb, are not so soon wearied, and the movement which 
is the least fatiguing is readily adopted by those who are in 
constant practice of the art. The pen should never be lifted 
in any single word in business writing. The proper position 
of the body, hand, and pen, are of the utmost importance, and 
should receive much attention. By pursuing the course indi- 
cated, the practice of frequently lifting the pen will be avoided, 
and strength of muscle with steadiness of hand permanently 
acquired. The fault of turning the hand to the right is avoided ; 
and freedom, uniformity, and rapidity, are obtained. The arm 
glides over the paper with little eftbrt, the hand is not soon 
wearied, and the fingers act with great steadiness and precis- 
ion. Tb« idea frequently advanced, that writing is merely 
a mechanical exercise, and requires no eflfbrt of the mind, arises 
from a want of investigation. Handsome letters can never be 
made on paper until they are formed in the mind ; hence it 
will be seen, that, although the execution of writing is a me- 
chanical exercise, the conception and design is a mental one. 
Teachers should pay much attention to the early cultivation 
of taste in writing ; and it can commence at no point with 
greater propriety than where proportion, regularity, and 
neatness are presented to the eye, and where the mind is at 
the same time interested in the production of beai/tiful char- 
acters. The examples for imitation should be correctly formed, 
and free from every stiff appearance. It would be as incon- 
sistent to place imperfect copies before the learner, as it would 
be to give the student in grammar ungrammatical sentences 
from which to form his style of composition. 



METHOD OF TEACHING DRAWING. 



The importance of ' industry ' in the school-room cannot he 
too strongly recommended to every teacher. This habit insures 
success in the formation of character, and should therefore 
be early inculcated. It is a ' panacea ' for the evil propensities 
of the mind, as it puts in motion the physical machinery of 
man. In the District school, the youngest scholars are usually 
required to sit ' prim ' three fourths of their time, with body 
erect, hands clasped, or arms folded, and too often upon the 
' fair side of a slab,' with no support for their backs or limbs. 
I will not name the amount of time occupied by the teacher 
in holding these little creatures mentally and physically in 
' durance,' in opposition to the laws of nature and common 
sense. This practice leads to sluggishness of thought, and 
indolence of action, unless indeed nature stimulates the child 
to 'break jail' and parry consequences, by his ingenuity to 
* out-general' his keeper, or hy false represeiitations to deceive 
his judge. All this sacrifice of moral principle, of time and 
expense, of teacher and schofar, may be avoided by putting 
these scholars 'into business.' I know of no employment in 
the school-room, so well adapted to the eye, the mind, and the 
hand, as that of Drawing ; and for this purpose the slate, 
the black-board, and suitable patterns, are an invaluable 
acquisition. 

Choice of figures — diagrams or objects to be drawn — is 
a desideratum. Simplicity, usefulness, and adaptation, should 
be the aim of every elementary work. To draw right lines, 
then to form them into angles, squares, pentagons, hexagons, 
octagons, e^c. — and to draw the circle, the cone, the pyramid, 
with specimens of nature and art, are labors, not only delight- 
ful, but instructive. All the ' prim ' time may be thus era- 
ployed by the scholars, forming habits of industry, improving 
their powers of imitation, and storing their minds with the 
principles of natural and mathematical science, — principles 
of M'hich, for want of this mode of instruction, it is to be 



130 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 









/^©'? 




f 














feared, too many possess only a superficial knowledge. By 
this method of training, much is gained and nothing lost. 

A remark in point I quote from a distinguished educational 
gentleman in the city of New York : — ' Drawing is extensively 
taught ; and the children, so far from being impeded in their 
regular hook exercises, have improved at least fifty per cent, 
faster in those exercises than they did previously ; so that draw- 
ing upon slates and black-boards, instead of retarding, greatly 



DRAWING- 131 

enhances, the progress of pupils in all their studies.' The 
preceding plan is recommended to teach children the first 
lessons in Drawing previous to their using a Drawing Book. 

The cut is a specimen of Josiah Holbrook's Child's First 
Book — one of a series of Drawing Books for children pub- 
lished by J. H. Mather & Co., of Hartford, Connecticut. 

The first exercises are very plain, and are peculiarly 
adapted to the black-board. The teacher should draw 
one of the exercises on the black-board, and then permit the 
children to copy it upon their slates until it can be correctly 
drawn. I should commence with the parallel lines, and pro- 
ceed no faster than the figures can be correctly drawn. This 
exercise will require but little time of the teacher, and be 
of great benefit to the children. It will enable him to keep 
them pleasantly employed, and greatly assist him in gov- 
erning his school. The exercises should be drawn so large 
upon the black-board, that they may be seen in all parts of 
the school-room. 

The following engraving exhibits the method of holding 
the pen. It will also furnish an example' for drawing. 




METHOD OF TEACHING READING. 



That reading has not hitherto been correctly taught in 
common schools, is evident from the fact, that most scholars 
read very badly, — without appearing to understand the 
meaning of any thing which they read. This is owing to the 
want of correct instruction, — to the formation of bad habits, 
contracted in early life, and to the want of adequate rules, 
clearly explained, and made intelligible to the minds of the 
young. 

The most ready .way to overcome this defect, is to begin 
with children at a very early period, and to make them read 
what they do read well, — to make them understand and feel 
what they read. They should not be allowed to read any 
piece which they do not understand. It would be better, far 
better, to drill them for a whole week on one piece, than to 
have them read mani/ without understanding them. For it 
is not how much, but how well, they read, which should be the 
object of instruction. Easy and familiar lessons only should 
be read, till they can read them well, and give the proper 
expression. The true expression is the object aimed at. As 
the scholar can have no just idea of the nameless and ever- 
varying shades of expression, which give life and force to 
good reading, so it will often be necessary for the teacher and 
scholar to read over alternately the same piece or paragraph, 
perhaps, a number of times, till the scholar fully understands 
its meaning and feels its force. 

But, as the great mass of teachers have never studied the 
art of reading as a science, and know nothing of the principles 
on which it is founded, how can they be expected to teach 
correctly? It would be just as reasonable to expect them 
to teach English grammar without rules, or without a suffi- 
cient knowledge of the subject, as correct reading. Skill 
and success, in both cases, depend on systematic training, 
founded upon correct rules. Not only are rules essential 
for the guidance and assistance of teachers and scholars ; 
but acute penetration and judgment, to discover the nice 



READING. 133 

shades of meaning, as well as taste and feeling to embody and 
express it. 

For a complete system of rules for correct reading and 
speaking, see Russell and Goldsbury's series of reading 
books, especially the * American School Reader,' and ' the 
Introduction.* 



OBJECTS OF READING. 

The objects of reading are twofold: — !. To gain informa- 
tion ; and, 2. To communicate it to others. 

The first object may be attained by reading silently to 
one's self, without using the organs of speech at all ; and the 
best direction that can be given to the silent reader, is to be 
careful to understand what he reads. If there be any thing 
which he does not fully comprehend, he should ask some per- 
son to explain it to him. If he do not know the meaning of 
the words, he should consult a dictionary. 

The second object of reading can be attained only by read- 
ing aloud and intelligibly. The object here is to make others 
understand what is read. And that reading is probably the 
best, and certainly the most effective, which best enables 
others, without a book, by the mere hearing of the ear, to 
understand what is read, and to feel its force. Still it is 
proper to remark, that there are two kinds of audible reading, 
the grammatical and the rhetorical. 

Grammatical reading, like that of reading to one's self, 
regards the sense only of what is read. It merely requires 
the scholar to read correctly, according to the rules of gram- 
mar, but without any emotion or feeling. All he is required 
to do, is to 'call' his words right, and to read just as he would 
read a hill of sale, an invoice of goods, a deed of land, or any 
other legal instrument. 

Rhetorical reading has a higher object, and calls into action 
higher powers. It is not applicable to a composition destitute 
of emotion, for it supi:)Oses/ee/m^. It does not barely express 
the thoughts of an author, but it expresses them with the 
force, variety, and beauty, which feeling demands. 

12 



134 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



ARTICULATION. 

No person can become a good reader or speaker, without 
first acquiring a clear and distinct articulation. This is a 
subject of primary importance ; and it should be strictly 
attended to in all our schools. A clear and distinct articula- 
tion is always listened to with pleasure ; but a mumbling, 
mouthy, or imperfect utterance is always disagreeable, if not 
disgusting. 

Rule. — Articulate with due force, slowness, and exact- 
ness ; so that every sound of the voice may be fully and 
correctly formed, distinctly heard, and perfectly understood. 



Exercises 
Jll, ball, fall. 
u4rm, harm, charm. 
-4n, and, as. 
Rare, dare, fare. 
jS^rr, erst, earn. 
^nd, ebb, ell. 
/n, if, i&. 
Eve, eel, heed. 
Or, orb, cord. 
On, off, odd. 
Up, hut, tub. 
Ooze, moon, pool. 
Look, took, boot, 
^le, pave, lace. 
Ice, pme, f*re. 
Old, foal, soul. 
Our, out, ounce. 
Oil, hoy, jom. 
Use, tune, iume. 
Lull, loll, ^ull. 
Muhn, mime, mum. 
JSTun, nine, noun. 



in Articulation. 
Jiap, ran, rag. 
Tar, tear, slur. 
S'mg, hancf, rung. 
Ba.be, babble, bubble. 
Did, died, dared. 

Va\ve, revolve, vivid, 
-^one, 2any, zest.- 
Azure, seizure, measure. 
Te, you, yet. 
Woe, way, war. 
Then, thine, th-a.n. 
Thin, thick, ^Aank. 
*^oy, yay, yune. 
Pipe, pope, peep. 
Tent, ^augh^,, total. 
Cake, clock, click. 
Fife, fade, fast. 
Cease, cess, assists. 
He, hail, Aave. 
PusA, hush, rash. 
Church, chain, choose. 



The foregoing exercises may be introduced upon the black- 
board, or used in any other way which the teacher chooses. 
It will be well to distinguish carefully between simple an^ 



READING. 135 

compound elements, and also between suUonic and attonic 
elements. The terms, subtonic and attonic, nearly correspond 
with semivowels and mutes. 



COMBINATION OF CONSONANTS. 

^Zame, ^ame, cZear, ^Zow, joZay, sZeep, spleen ; &?'ave, creep, 
dfrive, free, grow, pray, spread, ^rust, strike, sAroud ; small, 
snow, spar, stay. 

Hold, elf, hulk, helm, scalp, hills, else, fault, twelve ; aim'cZ, 
hums, end, vans, ink, dance, arit ; harh, herd, farm, turn, yerse, 
wars, art, eurve, curb'd, hu^k'd, arm'd, warm'd, ^rst, carv'd; 
chas7n, ris'n, asp, must, hiss'c?, stocks, act, raFd, waft, qua^'d, 
apt, pijo'tZ, op'n, tak'n, garden, r'w'n, ligh^'n; whiZs^, cam's^, canstf 
wouldst, heard' St, arm'dst, turn'dst; able, maple, idle, hurl, dis- 
abl'd, brid'ld, rippl'd, world. 



PRONUNCIATION. 

That pronunciation is correct which is sanctioned by good 
usage, or custom. Good usage may be regarded as a law. 
When it varies, as it does in some cases, we are at liberty 
to follow our own choice. But, when men of learning and 
taste agree, they establish a rule which is of binding authority. 
As a standard authority, perhaps we have none better than 
Mr. Worcester's late ' Critical Dictionary.' 

Common Errors in Pronunciation. 

The following errors should be carefully studied and cor- 
rected. The best method, perhaps, of correcting an error, 
when it has once become a habit, is to require pupils to 
repeat, in quick succession, first the error, and then the cor- 
rection, till they are made sensible of the error, and are able 
to correct it. 

Alwuz, for always ; oall, for Ml ; arm, for arm ; are, for are ; 
again, agan, agin, for again (agen) ; range, for range ; angels, 
for angels ; ant, for aunt ; bade, for bade ; charms, for charms ; 
daunt, for daunt ; kerry, for carry j meddle, for medal ; ruther, 



136 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



for rather ; sheer, for share ; wrop, for wrap ; warter and 
woter, for water ; wawmer, for warmer ; airliest. for earliest ; 
airth, for earth ; idee, for idea ; haunts, for haunts ; pass, for 
pass. 

Aig, for egg ; laig, for leg ; faish and feesh, for fish ; ware, 
for were ; ben, for been (bin) ; noar, for nor ; lost, for lost ; 
onder, for under; aice, for ice; hom, for home; sorce, for 
source ; ile and oayl, for oil. 

Git, for get ; jine, for join ; jinte, for joint ; instid, for instead ; 
gether, for gather ; gineral, for general ; ginuine, for genuine ; 
gloris and glorus, for glorious ; hed, for had ; heerd, for heard ; 
hurth, for hearth; hostile, for hostile; holler, for hollow j 
histed, for hoisted. 

Favorites, for favorites ; feater, for feature ; futer, for future ; 
furful, for fearful ; foller, for follow ; forgit, for forget ; fortin, 
for fortune ; feller, for fellow ; feels, for fields ; furrers, for fur- 
rows ; frinds, for friends ; faller, for fallow ; fopunce, for four- 
pence ; edercate, for educate ; entud, for entered ; exelunt, for 
excellent ; eviy, for every. 

Cawn, for corn ; chist, for chest ; covnunt, for covenant ; 
destrict, for district ; disceit, for deceit ; deciples, for disciples ; 
cunfined, for confined ; cunnected, for connected ; cavuns, for 
caverns ; comfut, for comfort ; creater, for creature ; sullers, 
for cellars. 

Gurus, for curious ; crederlous, for credulous ; churful, for 
cheerful ; culter, for culture ; centry, for century ; ketch, for 
catch ; bile, for boil ; beyend, for beyond ; buddy, for body ; 
beller, for bellow ; bunnets, for bonnets ; bruthren, for breth- 
ren ; bawn, for born ; borrer, for borrow ; arrer, for arrow ; 
actooal, for actual ; annooal, for annual ; amebic, for amiable ; 
after, for after. 

Kittles, for kettles ; lecter, for lecture ; mixter, for mixture ; 
medders, for meadows ; momunt, for moment ; monemunt, for 
monument ; meller, for mellow ; nater, for nature ; natteral and 
natooral, for natural ; native, for native ; narrer, for narrow. 

Othuz, for others ; onwud, for onward ; pint, for point ; 
picter, for picture ; pison, for poison ; perpettual and perpetooal, 
for perpetual ; pered, for period ; poperlar, for popular ; posters, 
for postures; paster, for pasture; pumitted, for permitted; 
piller, for pillow ; rupter, for rupture ; rapter, for rapture. 

Spere, for sphere ; sut, for soot ; shetter, for shutter ; swaller, 
for swallow ; skerce, for scarce ; stawms, for storms j sorrers, 



READING. - 137 

for sorrows ; shaller, for shallow ; sticldy, for steady ; spile, 
for spoil ; sarch, for search ; salitary, for salutary ; shet, for 
shut ; sperit, for spirit ; sitooated^ for situated ; sech, for such ; 
shawtly, for shortly ; supprise, for surprise ; sussiety, for so- 
ciety ; slippry, for slippery ; sheppud, for shepherd ; shad- 
ders, for shadows. 

Tribit, for tribute ; talunts, for talents ; tremenduous, for 
tremendous ; toomultoous, for tumultuous ; turberlunt, for tur- 
bulent ; travler, for traveller ; torter, for torture. 

Valuble, for valuable ; voilent, for violent ; verder, for ver- 
dure ; varus, for various ; venter, for venture ; victry, for vic- 
tory ; virtoos, for virtues ; vess'l, for vessel. 

Wuth, for worth ; winder, for window ; widder, for widow ; 
wawble, for warble ; wilely, for wildly ; yaller, for yellow ; 
taken, for tak'n ; broken, for brok'n ; spoken, for spok'n ; 
open, for op'n. 

Acs, for acts ; accoss, for accosts ; bustin, for bursting ; ble- 
vin, for believing ; bouns, for bounds ; bease, for beasts ; close, 
for clothes ; clus, for close ; comprehens, for comprehends ; 
direcly, for directly ; dritfs, for drifts ; consiss, for consists ; 
cosly, for costly ; contrass, for contrasts. 

Exiss, for exists ; elemense, for elements ; exussise, for 
exercise ; foress, for forests ; fust, for first ; follorn, for forlorn ; 
feass, for feasts ; forrard, for forward ; groun, for ground ; 
guess, for guests ; gose, for ghosts ; bosses, for horses ; bans, 
for hands ; husban, for husband. 

Jest and just, for just; kep, for kept; lugsury, for luxury; 
lisless, for listless ; leff, for left ; lifFs, for lifts ; mothuz, for 
mothers ; munz, for months ; mose, for most ; miss, for mists ; 
perfecly, for perfectly ; presenly, for presently ; preese, for 
priests ; pose, for posts ; pouns, for pounds ; prospecks, for 
prospects ; respecks, for respects. 

Sawr, for saw ; stockins, for stockings ; soffly, for softly ; 
sixc, for sixth ; tempess, for tempests ; thousn, for thousand ; 
tracks, for tracts ; thusty, for thirsty ; wishin, for wishing ; 
wins', for winds. 

The preceding are but specimens of the numerous errors 
which daily occur in common school reading. To avoid these 
and similar errors, the elementary sounds, simple and com- 
pound, and their combinations in syllables and words, should 
be frequently and carefully repeated. Let the teacher make 
12* 



138 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

such a use of the foregoing examples as, in his judgment, will 
secure a correct pronunciation of words. It would be well, also, 
to require scholars to read a few lines of every lesson back- 
wards, so as to prevent rapidity of utterance, and to secure 
attention to exactness in the formation of sounds. 



EXERCISES ON FORCE. 

Half whisper. 
' Step softly ! — All 's hushed as midnight, yet.* 

Suldued force. 
* Pale mourned the lily, when the rose had died.* 

Gentle force. 
* Give me a calm, a thankful heart. 
From every murmur free ! * 

Moderate force. 

* The acquiring of knowledge is one of the highest privi- 
leges, as well as one of the most important duties, of the young.* 

Bold force. 

* Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my 
hand and my heart to this vote. — Independence now, and 
independence for ever ! ' 

Shouting. 
* Liberty ! Freedom ! — Tyranny is dead ! ' 



EXERCISES ON PITCH. 

Lowest pitch. 
Silence how dead ! and darkness how profound ! * 

Low pitch. 
* How dead the vegetable kingdom lies ! 
How dumb the tuneful ! ' 



READING. 



133 



Middle pitch. 
<• A tranquil mind, like the smooth lake, reflects all things 
in their true forms.' 

High pitch. 

' Up ! let us to the fields away. 
And breathe the fresh and balmy air ! ' 

Very high pitch. 
* Joy, joy for ever ! — my task is done ; 
The gates are passed, and heaven is won ! * 



EXERCISES ON MOVEMENT. 

Slowest movement. 
* Creation sleeps. — 'T is as the general pulse 
Of life stood still, and nature made a pause, — 
An awful pause, — prophetic of her end 1 * 

Slow movement. 
< How sweet and solemn is this midnight scene ! ' 

Moderate movement. 
' Nothing affords so sure a support to the mind, as a firm 
reliance on the goodness of God.' 

lAvely movement. 
*Is this a time to be gloomy and sad. 
When our mother Nature laughs around ? ' 

Rapid movement. 
* Haste thee, nymph, and bring with thee 
Mirth and youthful jollity. 
Quips and cranks and wanton wiles. 
Nods and becks and wreathed smiles ! ' 



140 THE BLACK-BOARD, 



EMPHASIS. 



Emphasis is a peculiar stress of the voice laid on some 
word or words in a sentence, in order to distinguish them from 
others, or to enforce their meaning. Every sentence has, at 
least, one emphatic word ; some sentences have more. If, in 
any instance, we lay the emphasis on a wrong word, or on a 
different word, we alter the meaning entirely. This may be 
illustrated by the following example : — 

* Shall you ride to town to-day ? ' 

If we lay the emphasis on shall^ as '■Shall you ride to town to- 
day ? ' the answer may be ' Yes,' or 'iVb ; ' — if on you, as 

* Shall you ride to town to-day ? ' the answer may be, '•JSfo, but 
my friend will ;' — if on ride, as ' Shall you ride to town to- 
day?' the answer maybe, ''Bo, but I shall go on foot ;' — 
if on town, as ' Shall you ride to town to-day ? ' the answer 
may be, ''No, but I shall go into the comitry ;' — if on day, as 

* Shall you ride to town to-day .^ ' the answer may be, '■No, but 
I shall to-morrow.^ 

Similar remarks may be applied to the following line of 
Shakspeare : — 

'But Brutus says he was ambitious ;' 

which occurs several times in Antony's oration over the dead 
body of Csesar. In every instance in which the line occurs, 
the emphasis should be varied according to the sense. 

Let every reader, then, be careful to give the right em- 
phasis. He should endeavour, not only to emphasize the 
right words, but to give each word its due amount of em- 
phasis. Too much or too little will injure the sense as effect-^ 
ually, as laying it on a wrong word, or as using no emphasis 
at all. 

Note. — Appropriate pauses, correct inflections, just stress, 
and natural and expressive tones, are each essential to good 
reading. These can be acquired only by study and practice. 
But we have not room to treat of them here. For a knowledge 
of these topics, see 'The American Common-School Reader 
and Speaker,' by Russell and Goldsbury ; in which work will 
be found all the rules for correct reading and speaking. 



METHOD OF TEACHING COMPOSITION. 



Let all the pupils of suitable age and attainments be 
formed into a class, for the purpose of writing composition on 
the black-board, or on their slates. Let as many as can be 
conveniently accommodated at the black-board, have a portion 
of the board divided off, by a chalk line, by itself; and let the 
remainder write on their slates. 

Let the pupils now be informed, that the art of composition 
consists in ildnhing accurately upon a given subject, and 
writing down one's thoughts. To illustrate the truth of this 
remark, let the teacher select some subject, or request one 
of the pupils to select one, on which to write. As soon as 
the subject is selected, the exercise begins. 

The teacher then directs his pupils to write down the sub- 
ject on the black-board, or on their slates. He then dictates 
what is to be written ; and they write down whatever he dic- 
tates. He proceeds slowly, giving out one sentence at a time, 
and repeating it, so as to give all an opportunity and sufficient 
time to write it down. He then gives out another sentence, 
and repeats it, then another, and so on, till the writing is 
completed. Thus far his pupils have been left free to exer- 
cise their own judgment with regard to the execution — the 
spelling of the words, the use of capital letters, the punctua- 
tion, &c. Public criticisms are then made on each perform- 
ance ; all the errors are pointed out, and the rules of grammar 
applied. In this way, pupils will soon learn to execute correctly 
whatever the teacher dictates. And this is by no means a 
small attainment. There are comparatively few who com- 
plete their education at our common schools, able to write 
even a common letter correctly, and give it form, proportion, 
and beauty. 

Let the next exercise on the black-board be a letter ad- 
dressed to a friend of either sex, and the subject be * Our 
school and studies.' 

The teacher then directs his pupils to date the letter, and 
explains to them what he means by it ; that he wishes them 
to write down, in a proper manner, on the black-board, the 
name of the place, the month, the day of the month, and the 
year. As soon as they have done this, he criticises each per- 



142 THE BLACK-BOARD. 

formance. He then directs them to rub it out, and write it 
anew, in its proper place. As soon as the date is completed, 
he directs them to write the address in its proper place. This 
may be somewhat variously written, and each mode be right. 
Still there is a right and a wrong way, as well as a right and 
a wrong place, of writing the address. Having examined 
each performance, and determined what the address should 
be, and where it should be written, he proceeds to dictate 
what they are to ivrite doivn. He gives out one sentence at 
a time, and repeats it, then another, and repeats it, and 
so on, till the writing is completed. The pupils, as in the 
former example, have been left free to exercise their own 
judgment with regard to the execution — the spelling of the 
words, the use o^ capital letters, iha punctuation, &c. Public 
criticisms are then made on each performance ; all the errors 
are pointed out, and the rules of grammar applied. 

Let the next exercise on the black-board be a farmer's 
hill, — the next, a merchants hill, — the next, a polite hillet of 
invitation to a party. Perhaps, there is no class of composi- 
tions so generally incorrect as these. In each of these exer- 
cises, the pupils should be required to design and compose 
them for themselves. This will teach them to think, as well 
as to execute. The teacher should then criticise each per- 
formance, point out all the errors, and apply the rules of 
grammar. 

Let the same course of instruction be pursued, till pupils 
become qualified to write upon easy and familiar subjects, 
without the supervision of the teacher. Let them then have 
a subject given them to write upon ; and, at a given time, let 
them hand in their compositions. 

Every experienced teacher must have noticed what a variety 
of mistakes are usually made by pupils in their first attempts 
at this exercise. There will be errors in orthography, ety- 
mology, syntax, and prosody. The same pupil who, in a class 
of spellers, would spell every word right, will, in writing com- 
position, spell many of them wrong. Besides, capital letters 
will be out of place, the punctuation improperly used, sen- 
tences wrongly constructed, and the Queen's English, if not 
absolutely murdered, will be very much maimed and dismem- 
bered. To obviate all these difficulties, correct all these errors, 
and save much of the teacher's time, the black-board may be 
used to great advantage. 



GLOSSARY. 



Explanation of a few foreign words, not included among 
the prefixes, but which are extensively used in the formation 
of Enoflish words. 



Adeno • • • signifies • ♦ • gland. 

Aero, air. 

Anemo, wind. 

Angio, vessel. 

Antho, flower. 

Anthropo, man. 

Arche, beginning. 

Areto, virtue. 

Armi, arms. 

Astheno, sick. 

Astro, star. 

Auto, self. 

Baro, c weight. 

Belli, war. 

Bene, well. 

Bi, bis, bin, two. 

Biblio, book. 

Bio, life. 

Botano, • • plant. 

Brachy, short. 

Caco, bad. 

Calli, beauty. 

Carni, flesh. 

Chalco, brass. 

Chiro, hand. 

Chromato, color. 

Chrono, time. 

Centu, centi, cent, • • • hundred. 

Choro, place. 

Concho, shell. 

Cosmo, world. 

Cranio, .. = .'. skull. 

Crypto, V • . ' secret. 



Dactylo • • signifies * • finger. 

Deca, ten. 

Deraono, demon. 

Dendro, » tree. 

Doxo, opinion. 

Duo, du, two. 

Entero, bowels. 

Entomo, insect. 

Equi, ' equal. 

Etio, cause. 

EthnOj people. 

Etho, • ethic. 

Etymo, root. 

Eucho, prayer. 

Eu, ♦ • • • well. 

Fratrl, brother. 

Genia, race. 

Genethlia, natal. 

Geo, earth. 

Glosso, ♦ tongue. 

Glypho, engraving. 

Glypto, gem. 

Gnomo, maxim. 

Hagio, holy. 

Helio, sun. 

Hepta, seven. 

Hexa, hex, six. 

Helmintho, worm. 

Hetero, another. 

Hiero, sacred. 

Homo, similar. 

Horo, hour. 

Horti, • • • • • • 'garden. 



144 



THE BLACK-BOARD. 



Ichno • • • signifies • • • footstep. 

Icono, image. . 

Ichthyo, fish. 

Infra, below. 

Juris, legal. 

Lexico, dictionary. 

Litho, stone. 

Loco, place. 

Logo, word. 

Macro, long. 

Manto, robe. 

Manu, hand. 

Matri, mother. 

Meno, month. 

Micro, small. 

Mille, thousand. 

Mimo, mimic. 

Mono, one. 

Myco, fungus. 

Myo, muscle. 

Mytho, fable. 

Multi, many. 

Necro, dead. 

IS'eo, new. 

Neuro, nerve. 

Noct, night. 

Non, ne, not. 

Noso, disease. 

Nulli, none, no. 

Octa, octo, oct, eight. 

Omni, all. 

Onto, being. 

Ornitho, fowl. 

Ortho, rigbt. 

Osteo, ossi, bone. 

Ourano, heaven. 

Pan, panto, all. 

Pantheo, all the gods. 

Paradox, • • • • against opinion. 

Patho, suffering. 

Patri, parri, • -father. 

Penta, five. 



Petro • • • • signifies • • • • stone. 

Pharraaco, medicine. 

Philo, phil, love. 

Phraseo, phrase. 

Phreno, mind. 

Phono, sound. 

Photo, light. 

Physico, pbysio, natural. 

Phyto, plant. 

Pleni, .' full. 

Pneumato, fluid. 

Poly, many. 

Proto, • first. 

Pseudo, false. 

Ps}'cho, soul. 

Pyro, fire. 

Quad, four. 

Recti, right. 

Regi, king. 

Satis, • enough. 

Sceno, scene. 

Seleno, moon. 

Septem, sept, ■ • seven. 

Sex, six. 

Sine, without. 

Somato, body. 

Soli, one. 

Stegano, secret. 

Steno, • short. 

Stereo, solid. 

Tauto, same. 

Techno, art. 

Tele, end. 

Tetra, four. 

Theo, : God. 

Topo, place. 

Tri, tres, three. 

Typo, letter. 

Uni, one. 

Veri, true. 

Xylo, wood.! 

Zoo, animal 



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